Digital and Analog

Transmission

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 Digital
Transmission

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Digital Transmission
 A computer network is designed to send
information from one point to another.
 This information needs to be converted to either

a digital signal (digital transmission) or an

analog signal (analog transmission).
 In Digital transmission:

(1) methods which convert digital data to digital

signals (digital-to-digital conversion) and
(2) methods which convert analog signals to digital
signals (analog-to-digital conversion)

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Digital-to-Digital conversion

 Line coding is the process of

converting binary data, to a digital
signal (Unipolar, Polar and Bipolar).

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Analog-to Digital Conversion
 The techniques described earlier convert digital
data to digital signals. Sometimes, however, we
have an analog signal such as one created by a
microphone or camera.
 Since digital signal is superior to analog signal in
processing, the tendency today is to change
analog signal to digital signal.
 The most common technique to change an
analog signal to digital signal is called pulse
code modulation (PCM).

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PCM
 A PCM encoder has three processes:
1. Sampling: The analog signal is
sampled
2. Quantization: The sampled signal is
quantized
3. Encoding: The quantized values are
encoded as stream of bits.

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From analog signal to PCM digital code

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Sampling
 Line coding and block coding can be used to convert
binary data to a digital signal.
 If we want to store voice recording in the computer or
send it digitally, we need to change it through a
process called sampling. The sampling process is
sometimes referred to as pulse amplitude modulation
(PAM)
 After sampling, encoding can be used to convert it to a
digital signal ready for transmission.
• Digital signals are less prone (rentan) to noise and
distortion. A small change in an analog signal can
change the received voice substantially, but it takes a
considerable change to convert a 0 to 1 or a 1 to 0.

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PAM

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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) modifies the pulses
created by PAM to create a completely digital signal. To
do so, PCM first quantizes the PAM pulses.
 Quantization is a method of assigning integral values in
a specific range to sampled instances. Each value is
translated into its 7-bit binary equivalent, while the
eighth bit indicates the sign.
 The binary digits are then transformed to a digital signal
by using one of the line coding techniques.
 PCM is the sampling method used to digitize voice in T-
line transmission in the North American
telecommunication system

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Quantized PAM signal

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Quantizing by using sign and magnitude

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PCM

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 Note:

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be at least 2 times
the highest frequency.

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Nyquist theorem

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Example 1
What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a
bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz)?
Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in
the signal:

Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s

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Example 2
A signal is sampled. Each sample requires at least 12
levels of precision (+0 to +5 and -0 to -5). How many bits
should be sent for each sample?

Solution
We need 4 bits; 1 bit for the sign and 3 bits for the value.
A 3-bit value can represent 23 = 8 levels (000 to 111),
which is more than what we need. A 2-bit value is not
enough since 22 = 4. A 4-bit value is too much because 24
= 16.

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Example 3
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution

The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0

to 4000 Hz.
Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s

Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample

= 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 Kbps

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Transmission Mode

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Parallel Transmission
 In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent
with each clock tick. In serial mode one bit
is sent with each clock tick.
 In parallel transmission n wires are used
to transmit n bits. This is limited to short
distances as wiring is expensive

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Parallel transmission

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Serial Transmission
 In serial transmission, one bit follows
another; so we need only one
communication channel rather than n-
channels to transmit data between two
communicating devices.
 Serial communication reduces the cost by
roughly a factor of n.
 Serial transmission occurs in of two ways:
asynchronous or synchronous

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Serial transmission

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Asynchronous transmission
 In asynchronous transmission the timing or a signal
is unimportant.
 To alert the receiver of the arrival of a new group of
bits (usually a byte), an extra bit (0) (start bit) is added
at the beginning of each byte. Another bit (1) (stop bit)
needs to be transmitted at the end of the group to
indicated that the transmission of a byte is finished.
 In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be
followed by a gap of varying duration. This can be
either represented by an idle channel or by a stream of
additional stop bits.
 Asynchronous communication is slow but it is cheap
and effective. It is used for communication between
the keyboard and a computer

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 Note:

In asynchronous transmission, we
send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning
and 1 or more stop bits (1s) at the end
of each byte. There may be a gap
between each byte.

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Asynchronous transmission

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Synchronous transmission
 In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is
combined into ‘longer’ frames which may
contain multiple bytes.
 Each byte is introduced on to the transmission
link without a gap between two bytes.
 It is left to the receiver to separate the bit
stream into bytes for decoding purposes.
 The advantage of synchronous transmission is
speed, that’s why it is used for data transmission
between computers.

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 Note:

In synchronous transmission,
we send bits one after another without
start/stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits.

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Synchronous transmission

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Analog
Transmission
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Analog Transmission

 Digital transmission is very desirable but a

low-pass channel with a very large bandwidth
is needed.
 Analog transmission is the only choice if we have
a band-pass channel.
 We discuss methods for converting:
1. Digital data to a bandpass analog signal (Digital-
to-Analog conversion)
2. A lowpass analog signal to a bandpass analog
signal (Analog-to-Analog conversion)

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Digital-to-Analog Conversion

 Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of

changing one of the characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, or phase) of an analog signal based
on the information in a digital signal (0s and 1s).
 Transmitting data from one computer (digital) to
another across a public access phone line
(carries analog signals) requires that the digital
data must modulated on an analog signal that
has been manipulated to look like two distinct
values corresponding to binary 0 and 1.

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Digital-to-analog conversion

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Types of digital-to-analog modulation

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Note:

Bit rate is the number of bits per

second. Baud rate is the number of
signal units per second. Baud rate is
less than or equal to the bit rate.

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Bit rate and Baud rate

 A signal unit is composed of one or more bits.
 The fewer signal units required, the more efficient the
system and less bandwidth required to transmit more
bits.
 The baud rate determines the bandwidth required to
send the signal NOT the number of bits.
 In transportation, a baud is analogous to a car, and a bit
is analogous to a passenger. A car can carry one or
more passengers.
 The number of cars not the number of passengers
determines the traffic and therefore the need for wider
highways

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Example 4
An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000
signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the
bit rate

Solution
Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)
Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps

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Example 5
The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries
6 bits, what is the baud rate?

Solution
Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

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Carrier Signal
 In analog transmission, the sending device produces a
high-frequency signal that acts as a basis for the
information signal.
 This basic signal is called the carrier signal or carrier
frequency.
 The receiving device is tuned (menyesuaikan) to the
frequency of the carrier signal that it expects from the
sender.
 Digital information then modulates the carrier signal
by modifying one or more of its characteristics
(amplitude, frequency, or phase).
 This is called modulation or shift keying and the
information signal is called the modulating signal.

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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 In ASK, the strength of the carrier signal is

varied to represent binary 1 or 0. Both
frequency and phase remain constant
while the amplitude changes.
 ASK is highly susceptible (ren to noise
interference because noise mainly affects
amplitude.

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ASK

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

 The frequency of the signal during each

bit duration is constant, and its value
depends on the bit (0 or 1).
 Both peak amplitude and phase remain
constant.
 In FSK, the frequency of the carrier is
varied to represent binary 1 or 0.

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FSK

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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 Both peak amplitude and frequency remain

constant as the phase changes.
 The phase of the signal during each bit duration
is constant, and its value depends on the bit (0
or 1).
 For example a phase shift of 0° can represent
binary 0 and a phase shift of 180 ° to represent
binary 1. This is then called 2-PSK or binary
PSK, because only two phases are used.
 In PSK, the phase of the signal is varied to
represent binary 1 or 0.

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PSK

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 Chapter 5

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 A constellation or phase-state diagram shows

the relationship between phase and bit value.
 PSK is not susceptible to the noise degradation
that affects ASK or to the bandwidth limitations
of FSK.
 Therefore, we can use four variations of a
signal, each representing 2 bits. This technique
is called 4-PSK or Q-PSK. The pair of bits
represented by each phase is called a dibit.

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 Chapter 5

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 The 4-PSK idea can be extended to 8-PSK.

Instead of 90° , we can vary the signal by shifts
of 45°.
 With eight different phases, each shift can
represent 3 bits (a tribit).
 The minimum bandwidth required for PSK
transmission is the same as that required for
ASK transmission (for the same reasons).
 While the maximum baud rates of ASK and PSK
are the same for a given bandwidth, PSK bit
rates using the same bandwidth can be 2 or
more times greater.

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PSK constellation

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The 4-PSK method

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The 4-PSK characteristics

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The 8-PSK characteristics

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

 PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to

distinguish small differences in phase.
 So far we have been altering only one of the
three characteristics of a sine wave at a time.
What if we alter two?
 Bandwidth limitations make combinations of
FSK with other changes practically useless.
 As such, we will combine ASK with PSK.

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

 If we have x variations in phase and y

variation in amplitude, we will have x*y
possible variations. This is called
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
 Possible variations of QAM are numerous.
 To avoid noise interference, QAM always
uses more phase shifts than amplitude
shifts.

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Note:

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK so that a
maximum contrast between each
signal unit (bit, dibit, tribit, and so on)
is achieved.

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The 4-QAM and 8-QAM constellations

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Time domain for an 8-QAM signal

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

 The first example (3 amplitudes and 12 phases) handles

noise best because of a greater ratio of phase shift to
amplitude. It is the ITU-T recommendation.
 The second example (4 amplitudes, 8 phases) is the
ISO recommendation. Not all intersections in the
graph are utilized out of 32 possible variations.
 QAM has a lower susceptibility to noise compared to
ASK.
 The minimum bandwidth required for QAM is the same
as that required for ASK and PSK.

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16-QAM constellations

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Table 5.1 Bit and baud rate comparison

Modulation Units Bits/Baud Baud rate Bit Rate

ASK, FSK, 2-PSK Bit 1 N N

4-PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N

8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3N

16-QAM Quadbit 4 N 4N
32-QAM Pentabit 5 N 5N
64-QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N
128-QAM Septabit 7 N 7N
256-QAM Octabit 8 N 8N
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 Chapter 5

Example 6
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced
points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?

Solution
The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45
degrees apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with
each signal unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud

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Telephone Modems
 Traditional phone lines can carry frequencies between
300 and 3300 Hz, giving them a bandwidth of 3000 Hz.
 All this range is used for transmitting voice, where a
great deal of interference and distortion can be accepted
without loss of intelligibility.
 Data signals, however, require a higher degree of
accuracy to ensure integrity.
 To be on the safe side, the edges of the bandwidth
range are not used for data communication.
 The effective bandwidth of a telephone line being used
for data transmission is 2400 Hz (600-3000 Hz).

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Note:

A telephone line has a bandwidth of

almost 2400 Hz for data transmission.

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Telephone line bandwidth

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Note:

Modem stands for

modulator/demodulator.

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Modulation/demodulation

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 Chapter 5

Telephone Modems

 A modulator creates a band-pass analog

signal from binary data. A demodulator
recovers the binary data from the
modulated signal.
 Today, the most popular modems
available are based on the V-series
standards published by ITU-T

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 Chapter 5

Traditional Modems

 In traditional modems data exchange is between

two computers, A and B through the digital
telephone network.
 After modulation by the modem, an analog
signal reaches the telephone company switching
station, where it is sampled and digitized to be
passed through the digital network. The
quantization noise introduced into the signal at
the sampling point limits the data rate according
to Shannon capacity. This limit is 33.6Kbps.
 Because the sampling point exists in both
directions, the maximum data rate is 33.6Kbps.

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Traditional modems

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 Chapter 5

56K Modem

 Communication today is via the internet. We still

use modems to upload data to the Internet and
down load data from the Internet
 In uploading, the analog signal must still be
quantized at the switching station, which means
that the data rate in uploading is limited to
33.6Kbps.However, there is no sampling in the
downloading. The signal is not affected by
quantization and hence the maximum data rate
in the down loading direction is 56Kbps

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56K modems

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Analog-to-Analog conversion
 Analog-to-analog conversion or analog modulation is the
representation of analog information by an analog signal.
 Why we need to modulate an analog signal, it is already
analog?
 Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature
or if only a bandpass channel is available.
 An example is radio. The government assigns a narrow
bandwidth to each radio station.
 The analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass
signal, all in the same range.
 To be able to listen to different stations, the low-pass
signals need to be shifted, each to a different range.
 Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three
ways: AM, FM and PM.

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 Chapter 5

Analog-to-analog modulation

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 Chapter 5

Types of analog-to-analog modulation

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 Chapter 5

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 Chapter 5

Note:

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal:
BWt = 2 x BWm.

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 Chapter 5
Amplitude modulation

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 Chapter 5
AM bandwidth

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 Chapter 5
AM band allocation

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 Chapter 5

Frequency Modulation (FM)

 In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier

signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remains
constant.
 The bandwidth of an FM signal is 10 times the
bandwidth of the modulating signal.
 The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and
music) broadcast in stereo is almost 15KHz. Each FM
station needs therefore a bandwidth of 150KHz.
 The FCC allows 200 KHz for each station to provide
some room for guard bands.
.

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Note:

The total bandwidth required for FM

can be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal:
BWt = 10 x BWm.

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Frequency modulation

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 Chapter 5
Figure 5.30 FM bandwidth

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 Chapter 5

Note:

The bandwidth of a stereo audio signal

is usually 15 KHz. Therefore, an FM
station needs at least a bandwidth of
150 KHz. The FCC requires the
minimum bandwidth to be at least 200
KHz (0.2 MHz).

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FM band allocation

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 Chapter 5

Phase Modulation (PM)

 Due to simpler hardware, PM is used in some

systems as an alternative to FM.
 In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier
signal is modulated to follow the changing
voltage level (amplitude) of the modulating
signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the
carrier signal remain constant.
 The analysis and final result (modulated signal)
are similar to those of frequency modulation

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