MEASUREMENT AND

EXPERIMENTATION
By :
Prof. Abhishek Sinha

PHYSICS
SYSTEM OF UNITS IN SI SYSTEM

 International System of Units (Système international d’unités) abbreviated as SI,  is the modern form of the metric
system and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built
on seven base units. The system also establishes a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be
used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units.
 In this topic, you will learn some important definitions and terms related to measurement, fundamental and derived units,
and some units of measure.
 Measurement: Measurement is the process of comparison of the given physical quantity with the known standard
quantity of the same nature.
 Unit: Unit is the quantity of a constant magnitude which is used to measure the magnitudes of other quantities of the
same nature.
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

 Metre: A metre is defined as the distance between two marks drawn on the platinum-iridium rod kept at 0 oC in the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres near Paris.
 Kilogramme: A kilogramme is defined as the mass of a cylindrical piece of platinum-iridium alloy kept in International
Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres near Paris.
 Second: A second is defined as 1/86400 the part of a mean solar day.
ESTIMATION BY ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE

 The order of magnitude of a physical quantity is its magnitude in powers of ten when that physical quantity is expressed
in powers of ten with one digit to the left of the decimal.
 If the thickness of a card sheet is 0.0027 m = 2.7 x 10-3 m

 Then its order of magnitude will be 10-3 m

 General Formula: Physical quantity = M x 10n

 10 < M < 1.

  “n” is a positive or negative integer.

 The power of ten (i.e. 10n) is called the order of magnitude of the physical quantity.

 M is called its numerical value.

 While expressing the order of magnitude of a physical quantity, its unit must be mentioned because, by the change of
unit, the power of ten in its magnitude will also change: The order of 2.7 x 10-3 m ≠ the order of 2.7 x 10-1 cm.
MEASUREMENT

 The result of measurement can be expressed in terms of the following two terms:

 The unit in which the quantity is to be measured.

 The numerical value which expresses, how many times the unit is contained in the given quantity.

 Thus, Physical quantity = (numerical value) x (unit)

 Choice of Unit (SARC)

The unit should have the following properties:
 The unit should be of convenient size.

  It should be possible to define the unit without ambiguity.

  The unit should be reproducible.

 The value of unit should not change with space and time.

 The last three conditions are necessary for the unit to be accepted internationally.
FUNDAMENTAL AND DERIVED UNITS

 Fundamental or Basic Units

 A fundamental or basic unit is that which is independent of any other unit or which can neither be changed nor can be
related to any other unit.
 The units of mass, length, time, temperature, current and amount of substance are fundamental units.

 Derived Units

 Derived units are those which depend on the fundamental units or which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental
units.
 For example, for the measurement of area, we need a unit which is length x length or (length)2
UNIT OF LENGTH
 Sub units of metre:

 1 centimetre (cm) = 10-2 m.

 1 millimetre (mm) = 10-3 m.

 1 micron (m) = 10-6 m.

 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-9 m.

 Multiple units of metre:

 1 kilometre (km) = 103 m.

 Non-metric units of metre:

 1 Astronomical unit (A.U.) = 1.496 x 1011 m.

 1 Light year (ly) = 9.46 x 1012 m.

 1 Parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m.

 Smaller units of metre:

 1 Angstrom (Å) = 10– 10 m.

 1 fermi (f) = 10-15 m.

UNIT OF MASS
 Units of mass (S.I. unit is kg).

 Sub units of kilogramme

 1 gramme (g) = 10-3 kg.

 1 milligramme (mg) = 10-6 kg.

 Multiple units of kilogramme

 1 quintal = 102 kg.

 1 metric tonne = 103 kg.

 Non-metric units of kilogramme

 1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) = 1.66 x 10-27 kg.

 Larger units of kilogramme

 1 solar mass = 2 x1030 kg.

UNIT OF TIME
 Units of time (S.I. unit is s).

 Common units of time

 1 Minute (min) =  60 s.

 1 Hour (h) = 3600 s.

 1 Day = 86400 s.

 1 Month is approx. equal to 30 days.

 1 Lunar month is nearly equal to 27.3 days.

 1 year (yr) = 365 days.

 1 Leap year = 366 days.

 1 decade = 10 years.

 1 century = 100 years.

 1 millennnium = 1000 years.

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING UNITS

 The symbol for a unit, which is not named after a scientist, is written in the lower letter. For example g, kg, s.

 The symbol for a unit, which is named after a scientist, is written with the first letter of his name in capital. For
example Pa for pascal, J for joule.
 The full name of the unit, even when it is named after a scientist, is written with a lower initial letter. For example unit of
force is written as newton and not as Newton.
 A compound unity formed by multiplication of two or more units is written after putting dot, cross or leaving a space in
between the two symbols. For example, the unit of torque is written as N.m or Nm or N m.
 Negative power is used for compound units, which are formed by dividing one unit by the other. The unit of velocity
is (metre \ second ) and is expressed as ms–1
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

 If you have seen athletes running the 100-metre dash in the Olympics or any other track and field event, you will have
noticed that even a nano-second counts. Timing and speed are everything for an athlete to be the first to reach the
finishing line. To compare performances of different athletes, three different quantities are measured, distance, time and
speed.
 While the distance is already laid down on the track using a tape, time is measured using a stopwatch and speed is
measured by devices like radar guns. At home, you can use devices made for individual use like your phones,
pedometers, fitness trackers etc to measure speed, distance and time if you are going running or walking.
 Similarly, there are many other quantities that need to be measured in everyday lives. For example, the speed of a car, the
weight of fruits and vegetables consumed in your home, the amount of sugar in coffee, the correct amount of chemicals
required in an experiment, the amount of fuel required by an aeroplane, etc.
 In this lesson, you will learn about measurements, measuring devices and how to use them.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS COMMONLY USED IN
MEASUREMENTS

 Least Count: The least count of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be taken accurately with it. Smaller
the least count of an instrument, more precise is the measurement made by using it. For example, the least count of a
metre rule or scale is the value of its one division which is one tenth of a centimetre (1/10 th cm) or 1 millimetre (1 mm).
 Volume: The space occupied by a body is called its volume.

 Metre Scale: A scale of length 1 metre which is graduated in cm with subdivisions in mm such that there are 10
divisions in each length of 1 cm.
 Least count of a metre scale is 1 mm or 0.1 cm.
DIFFERENT INSTRUMENTS USED TO TAKE MEASUREMENTS

 Metre Scale

 Vernier Calliper

 Screw Gauge
HOW TO USE A METRE SCALE:
 To measure the length of an object, place the metre scale with its markings close to the object such that the zero mark on
the scale coincides with one end of the object.
 The reading of the marking on the scale at the other end of the object then gives the length of the object.

Precautions (DVNL)

 If the end of the metre scale marked ‘0’ is Damaged due to wear and tear, measure the length from the graduation other
than ‘0’. The correct length is then obtained by subtracting the marking observed at one end from that observed at the
other end.
 The eye must be kept Vertically above the end of the object and the corresponding graduation in the line of sight should
be read. This avoids the parallax error arising due to the thickness of scale.
 In case, the end of the object lies between the two small divisions of the scale, the correct length is reported by noting the
marking Nearer to the end of an object.
 Limitation of a metre scale is that it can be used to measure length correct only up to one decimal place of a centimetre.
Higher precision can be achieved with the help of Vernier callipers or screw gauges.
VERNIER CALLIPERS
 Pierre Vernier invented the Vernier Calliper. Distances smaller than millimetres cannot be measured by using regular measuring scales whereas a
device like the Vernier Calliper can measure extremely small distances.

 Principle of Vernier

 Using this method, you can measure lengths up to the 2nd decimal place of a centimetre that is values of 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm can be measured
correctly.
 This technique uses two scales:

 The fixed scale otherwise called the main scale.

 The other scale called the Vernier scale slides along the main scale.

 Least Count (L.C.) of Vernier is also called the Vernier Constant.

 L.C. = Value of 1 main scale division – Value of 1 Vernier scale division

 Use of Vernier

 When the jaws of the Vernier touch each other, the zero of the Vernier scale coincides with the zero mark of the main scale.

 Consider the object you are going to measure is a rod. This rod, whose length is to be measured, is placed in between the jaws of the Vernier.

 Length of the object = Total reading = Main scale reading + Vernier reading

 Vernier Reading = p × least count (where p is the pth division of Vernier scale which coincides with any division of the main scale).
VERNIER CALLIPERS
 Description

 The outside jaws are used to measure the length of a rod, the diameter of a sphere or external diameter of a cylinder.

 The inside jaws are used to measure the internal diameter of a hollow cylinder or pipe.

 The strip T is used to measure the depth of a small beaker or bottle.

 The main scale helps to measure length correctly up to 1 mm.

 Vernier scale helps to measure length correctly up to 0.1 mm.

 Least Count of Vernier Callipers

L.C. = Value of 1 main scale division / Total number of divisions on Vernier scale
 Positive Zero Error
 On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero mark of the Vernier scale is on the right of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error is said to be positive.
 Zero error = the number of Vernier division which coincides with any division of the main scale x L.C.
 The value of this error is always positive.

 Negative Zero Error

 On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero mark of the Vernier scale is on the left of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error is said to be negative.
 Zero error = (the number of Vernier division which coincides with any division of the main scale – the total number of Vernier divisions) x L.C.
 The value of this error is always negative.

 Measurement of length of an object using Vernier callipers.

 Observed length = Main scale reading + (Vernier division p coinciding with any division on the main scale) x L.C.

 True or correct length = Observed length – Zero error (with sign)

SCREW GAUGE
 A screw gauge is an instrument used for measuring the diameter of a thin wire or the thickness of a sheet of metal. It consists of a U-
shaped frame fitted with a screwed spindle which is attached to a thimble.

 Principle of Screw

 The pitch of a screw is the distance moved by the screw along its axis in one complete rotation of its head.

 Generally, the pitch of a screw is 1 mm or 0.5 mm.

 The least count of a screw is the distance moved by it in rotating the circular scale by one division.

 L.C. = Pitch of screw/Total number of divisions on circular scale

 Description

 The ratchet is used to advance the screw by turning it till the object is gently held between the stud and spindle of the screw.

 The sleeve is used to mark main scale and baseline.

 The thimble is used to mark circular scale.

 The main scale helps to measure length correct up to 1 mm.

 The circular scale helps to measure length correct up to 0.01 mm.

LEAST COUNT AND ZERO ERROR
 Least Count of a Screw Gauge

 L.C. = Pitch of screw gauge/ Total number of divisions on its circular scale

 Pitch of screw gauge is the linear distance moved by its screw on the main scale when the circular scale is given one complete
revolution
 Zero error in screw gauge

 Positive Zero Error

 On bringing both the spindle and the stud together, if the zero mark of the circular scale is below the baseline of the main scale,
the zero error is said to be positive.
 Zero error = The number of circular scale division which coincides with the baseline x L.C.

 The value of this error is always positive.

 Negative Zero Error

 On bringing both the spindle and stud together, if the zero mark of the circular scale is above the baseline of the main scale, the
zero error is said to be negative.
 Zero error = (The number of circular scale division which coincides with the baseline – The total number of circular scale
divisions) x L.C.
 The value of this error is always negative.
MEASUREMENT OF DIAMETER OF AN OBJECT USING A SCREW GAUGE
 Measurement of Diameter of an Object using a Screw Gauge

 Observed diameter = Main scale reading + (Circular scale division p coinciding with the baseline of the main scale) x L.C.

 True or correct diameter = Observed diameter – Zero error (with sign)

 ​Backlash Error

 This error is caused due to the wear and tear of threads of the screw.

 It is observed that on reversing the direction of rotation of the thimble, the tip of the screw does not start moving in the opposite
direction at once, but it remains stationary for a part of rotation.
 To avoid this error, the screw should be rotated in one direction only while taking the measurements.

 Measurement of Volume

 The S.I. unit of volume is a cubic metre or m3

 Generally, the volume of liquid is expressed in litre

 1000 litres = 1 m3
DISPLACEMENT METHOD
 The displacement method or water displacement method is the process of measuring the volume of an irregularly shaped object by immersing it
in water. This process can be described by using the acronym CFNIND.

 The measuring instrument is a Clean measuring cylinder.

 Fill it partly with water.

 Note the reading of lower meniscus of water.

 The solid with the help of a thin and strong string is completely immersed in water, without splashing the water.

 Again, Note the new reading of lower meniscus of water.

 Find the Difference in the two readings which gives the volume of solid.

 Variations

 For a solid lighter than water (say, a piece of cork) we use a sinker which is heavy and insoluble in water, such as a piece of stone or a piece of
metal.
 Volume of the solid = (Reading of water level when the sinker along with the solid is immersed – Reading of water level when the sinker is
immersed alone).
 For a solid soluble in water (say, a lump of salt or sugar) we replace water by a liquid (such as spirit, kerosene oil etc.) which is lighter (i.e., of
less density) than the given solid and in which the solid is insoluble.
SCREW GAUGE
VERNIER CALLIPERS
MEASUREMENT OF TIME AND SIMPLE PENDULUM

 How much sugar is needed to bake a cake? How much space will the car occupy in the garage? How much luggage is
allowed by your airline? In how much time can you finish writing the exam? Here are some instances that require you to
measure weight and time. 
 Every object has a mass that needs to be measured accurately if you want to put it into use. For example, a weighing
scale or balance is used to measure different kinds of weights. Shopkeepers use the grocer's balance, vegetable vendors
use a beam balance, you can check your weight with the bathroom scales etc, although all these traditional balances have
slowly been replaced by electronic weighing scales that measure different weights.
 Before the invention of a wall clock or a personal watch, people used the sun-dial in ancient times that were replaced by
water clocks and hour glass. Time today is measured in the minutest of units using precision watches.
 In this lesson, you will learn about the measurement of mass and time. 
MEASUREMENT OF TIME:

 Time is measured as the gap between two events irrespective of the duration of the event. It measured with respect to one
day – one rotation of the earth on its axis, divided into 24 units called hours.
 Instruments used to measure time:

 Stopwatch: It consists of a circular dial which is graduated in 60 equal division where each division is equal to 1 second.

 Stop Clock: It is a table clock and bigger in size than a stopwatch. It can measure time correct up to 1 second.

 Simple Pendulum: A simple pendulum is a heavy point mass (called the bob) suspended from a rigid support by a
massless and inextensible string.
 Compound Pendulum: This is capable of oscillating about the horizontal axis passing through it.

 Seconds Pendulum: The time period of oscillation is equal to two seconds.

MEASUREMENT OF TIME PERIOD USING A SIMPLE PENDULUM

 Measurement of time period using a simple pendulum:

 The time period of oscillation (T) is:

 Directly proportional to the square root of its effective length. T∝√l

 Inversely proportional to the square root of acceleration due to gravity (g). T∝ 1/g

 The time period of oscillation (T) does not depend on:

 The mass or material of the body suspended i.e., the bob.

 The extent of swing on either side (i.e., the amplitude). 2π √l/g

MASS

 Mass: The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains. Mass is measured using different types of balances, beam
balances, physical balance, electronic balance etc. The S.I. unit of mass is kilogramme (kg).
 Mass and Beam Balance:

 A beam balance works on the principle of moments according to which in equilibrium, the moment due to the weight of
an object on one side of the beam is equal to the moment due to the standard weights on the other side of the beam.
 One moment is clockwise and another moment is anticlockwise.
PRECAUTIONS IN USING A BEAM BALANCE (CLFDWR):

 The lever should be turned gently, in order to prevent the knife edges from Chipping.

 The beam should be Lowered before adding or removing weights from the pan.

 The weights should be carried with Forceps.

 When near the actual weight, the weights should always be tried in Descending order.

 Wet and hot objects should not be kept on the pan.

 The weights should be Replaced into the weight box after weighing.

 Conditions for a True Balance:

 Both arms must be of equal lengths

 Both pans must be of equal weights

VIDEO