Chapter 13

SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS

• Properties of Polymer Melts
• Extrusion and Related Processes
• Molding Processes
• Casting
• Polymer Foam Processing and Forming
• Product Design Considerations

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Plastic Products
• Plastics can be shaped into a wide variety of
products:
– Molded parts
– Extruded sections
– Films
– Sheets
– Insulation coatings on electrical wires
– Fibers for textiles

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Why Plastic Shaping Processes are Important
• Almost unlimited variety of part geometries
• Plastic molding is a net shape process; further
shaping is not needed
• Less energy is required than for metals because
processing temperatures are much lower
– Handling of product is simplified during production
because of lower temperatures
• Painting or plating is usually not required

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Two Types of Plastics
1. Thermoplastics
– Chemical structure remains unchanged during
heating and shaping
– More important commercially, comprising more than
70% of total plastics tonnage
2. Thermosets
– Undergo a curing process during heating and shaping,
causing a permanent change (called cross‑linking) in
molecular structure
– Once cured, they cannot be remelted
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Classification of Plastics Shaping Processes by
Product Geometry
• Extruded products with constant cross‑section
• Continuous sheets and films
• Continuous filaments (fibers)
• Molded parts which are mostly solid
• Hollow molded parts with relatively thin walls
• Discrete parts made of formed sheets and films
• Castings
• Foamed products
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Polymer Melts
• To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be
heated so that it softens to the consistency of
a liquid
• In this form, it is called a polymer melt
• Important properties:
– Viscosity
– Viscoelasticity

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Viscosity of Polymer Melts
Fluid property that relates shear stress to shear rate
during flow
• Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer melt is a
thick fluid with high viscosity
• Important because most polymer shaping processes
involve flow through small channels or die openings
• Flow rates are often large, leading to high shear rates
and shear stresses, so significant pressures are
required to accomplish the processes

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Viscosity of a polymer melt decreases with shear rate,
thus the fluid becomes thinner at higher shear rates

Figure 13.1 ‑ Viscosity

relationships for
Newtonian fluid and
typical polymer melt

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Viscosity of a polymer melt decreases with temperature,
thus the fluid becomes thinner at higher temperatures

Figure 13.2 ‑
Viscosity as a
function of
temperature for
selected polymers
at a shear rate of
103 s-1

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Viscoelasticity
Combination of viscosity and elasticity
• Possessed by both polymer solids and polymer
melts
• Example: die swell in extrusion, in which the
hot plastic expands when exiting the die
opening

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Die Swell
Extruded material "remembers" its former shape when
in the larger cross-section of the extruder and
attempts to return to it after leaving the die orifice

Figure 13.3 ‑ Die swell, a manifestation of viscoelasticity in

polymer melts, as depicted here on exiting an extrusion die

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Extrusion
Compression process in which material is forced to flow
through a die orifice to provide long continuous
product whose cross‑sectional shape is determined by
the shape of the orifice
• Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to
mass produce items such as tubing, pipes, hose,
structural shapes, sheet and film, continuous
filaments, and coated electrical wire
• Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate is then
cut into desired lengths
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.4 ‑ Components and features of a (single‑screw) extruder for
plastics and elastomers

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Two Main Components of an Extruder

1. Barrel
2. Screw
• Die - not an extruder component
– It is a special tool that must be fabricated for
particular profile to be produced

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Extruder Barrel
• Internal diameter typically ranges from 25 to 150
mm (1.0 to 6.0 in.)
• L/D ratios usually between 10 and 30: higher ratios
for thermoplastic, lower ratios for elastomers
• Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose
rotation moves material through barrel
• Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent mixing
and mechanical working adds heat which
maintains the melt

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Extruder Screw
• Divided into sections to serve several functions:
– Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper and
preheated
– Compression section - polymer is transformed into
fluid, air mixed with pellets is extracted from melt,
and material is compressed
– Metering section - melt is homogenized and
sufficient pressure developed to pump it through
die opening

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.5 ‑ Details of an extruder screw inside the barrel

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Die Configurations and Extruded Products

• The shape of the die orifice determines the

cross‑sectional shape of the extrudate
• Common die profiles and corresponding
extruded shapes:
– Solid profiles
– Hollow profiles, such as tubes
– Wire and cable coating
– Sheet and film
– Filaments
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Extrusion of Solid Profiles
• Regular shapes such as
– Rounds
– Squares
• Irregular cross‑sections such as
– Structural shapes
– Door and window moldings
– Automobile trim
– House siding

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.8 ‑ (a) Side view cross‑section of an extrusion die for solid
regular shapes, such as round stock; (b) front view of die, with profile
of extrudate Die swell is evident in both views
(Some die construction details are simplified or omitted for clarity.)

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Hollow Profiles
• Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other
cross‑sections containing holes
• Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
• Mandrel held in place using a spider
– Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the
mandrel to reunite into a monolithic tube wall
• Mandrel often includes an air channel through
which air is blown to maintain hollow form of
extrudate during hardening
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.10 ‑ Side view cross‑section of extrusion die for shaping hollow
cross‑sections such as tubes and pipes; Section A‑A is a front view
cross‑section showing how the mandrel is held in place; Section B‑B
shows the tubular cross‑section just prior to exiting the die; die swell
causes an enlargement of the diameter

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Wire and Cable Coating
• Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is
pulled at high speed through a die
– A slight vacuum is drawn between wire and
polymer to promote adhesion of coating
• Wire provides rigidity during cooling - usually
aided by passing coated wire through a water
trough
• Product is wound onto large spools at speeds
up to 50 m/s (10,000 ft/min)
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.11 ‑ Side view cross‑section of die for coating of electrical wire
by extrusion

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Polymer Sheet and Film
• Sheet
– Thickness from 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) to about 12.5 mm
(0.5 in.)
– Used for products such as flat window glazing and
stock for thermoforming
• Film
– Thickness below 0.5 mm (0.020 in.)
– Used for packaging (product wrapping material,
grocery bags, and garbage bags)
– Thicker film applications include pool covers and
liners for irrigation ditches
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Materials for Polymer Sheet and Film

• All thermoplastic polymers

– Polyethylene, mostly low density PE
– Polypropylene
– Polyvinylchloride
– Cellophane

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Sheet and Film Production Processes

• Most widely used processes are continuous,

high production operations
• Processes include:
– Slit‑Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
– Blown‑Film Extrusion Process
– Calendering

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Slit‑Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
Production of sheet and film by conventional
extrusion, using a narrow slit as the die opening
• Slit may be up to 3 m (10 ft) wide and as narrow as
around 0.4 mm (0.015 in)
• A problem in this method is uniformity of thickness
throughout width of stock, due to drastic shape
change of polymer melt during its flow through die
• Edges of film usually must be trimmed because of
thickening at edges
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.14 ‑ One of several die configurations for extruding
sheet and film

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Blown‑Film Extrusion Process
Combines extrusion and blowing to produce a
tube of thin film
• Process begins with extrusion of tube that is
drawn upward while still molten and
simultaneously expanded by air inflated into it
through die mandrel
• Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform film
thickness and tube diameter

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.16 ‑
Blown‑film process
for high
production of thin
tubular film

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Calendering
Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls to reduce
thickness to desired gage
• Equipment is expensive, but production rate is high
• Process is noted for good surface finish and high
gage accuracy
• Typical materials: rubber or rubbery thermoplastics
such as plasticized PVC
• Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains, vinyl
table cloths, pool liners, and inflatable boats and toys

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.17 ‑ A typical roll configuration in calendering

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Fiber and Filament Products
• Most important application of fibers and
filaments is in textiles
• Their use as reinforcing materials in plastics
(composites) is growing, but still small
compared to textiles
• Definitions:
– Fiber - a long, thin strand whose length is at least
100 times its cross‑section
– Filament - a fiber of continuous length
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Materials for Fibers and Filaments
• Fibers can be natural or synthetic
• Synthetic fibers constitute about 75% of total
fiber market today:
– Polyester is the most important
– Others: nylon, acrylics, and rayon
• Natural fibers are about 25% of total:
– Cotton is by far the most important staple
– Wool production is significantly less than cotton

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Fiber and Filament Production - Spinning

• The term spinning is a holdover from methods used

to draw and twist natural fibers into yarn or thread
For synthetic fibers, spinning = extruding a polymer melt
or solution through a spinneret (a die with multiple
small holes), then drawing and winding the product
onto a bobbin
• Three variations, depending on polymer processed:
1. Melt spinning
2. Dry spinning
3. Wet spinning
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Melt Spinning
Starting polymer is heated to molten state and pumped
through spinneret, similar to conventional extrusion
• Typical spinneret is 6 mm (0.25 in) thick and contains
approximately 50 holes of diameter 0.25 mm (0.010 in)
• Filaments are drawn and air cooled before being
spooled onto bobbin
• Significant extension and thinning of filaments occur
while polymer is still molten, so final diameter wound
onto bobbin may be only 1/10 of extruded size
• Used to produce filaments of polyesters and nylons
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.18 ‑ Melt
spinning of
continuous
filaments

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Dry Spinning
Similar to melt spinning, but starting polymer is in
solution and solvent can be separated by
evaporation
• First step is extrusion through spinneret
• Extrudate is pulled through a heated chamber
which removes the solvent, leaving the polymer
• Used to produce filaments of cellulose acetates
and acrylics

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Wet Spinning
• Polymer is also in solution, only solvent is
non‑volatile
• To separate polymer, extrudate is passed
through a liquid chemical that coagulates or
precipitates the polymer into coherent strands
which are then collected onto bobbins
• Used to produce filaments of rayon
(regenerated cellulose)

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Subsequent Processing of Filaments

• Filaments produced by any of the three

processes are usually subjected to further cold
drawing to align crystal structure along
direction of filament axis
– Extensions of 2 to 8 are typical
– Effect is to significantly increase tensile strength
– Drawing is accomplished by pulling filament
between two spools, where winding spool is
driven at a faster speed than unwinding spool
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Injection Molding
Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced
to flow under high pressure into a mold cavity
where it solidifies; molded part is then removed
from cavity
• Produces discrete components almost always to net
shape
• Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec., but cycles of one
minute or more are not uncommon
• Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple
moldings are produced each cycle
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Injection Molded Parts (Moldings)
• Complex and intricate shapes are possible
• Shape limitations:
– Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the
same geometry as part
– Shape must allow for part removal from mold
• Part size from  50 g (2 oz) up to  25 kg (more
than 50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
• Injection molding is economical only for large
production quantities due to high cost of mold
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Injection Molding Machine
• Two principal components:
– Injection unit – melts and delivers polymer melt,
operates much like an extruder
– Clamping unit – opens and closes mold each
injection cycle

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.20 ‑ A large (3000 ton capacity) injection molding machine (courtesy
Cincinnati Milacron)

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.21 ‑ Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating screw
type (some mechanical details are simplified)

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Injection Unit of Molding Machine
• Consists of barrel fed from one end by a
hopper containing supply of plastic pellets
• Inside the barrel is a screw which has two
functions:
1. Rotates for mixing and heating the polymer
2. Acts as a ram to inject molten plastic into mold
• Non‑return valve near tip of screw prevents melt
flowing backward along screw threads
• Later in molding cycle ram retracts to its former
position
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Clamping Unit of Molding Machine
• Functions:
1. Holds two halves of mold in proper alignment
with each other
2. Keeps mold closed during injection by applying a
clamping force sufficient to resist injection force
3. Opens and closes the mold at the appropriate
times in molding cycle

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.22 ‑ Typical molding cycle:
(1) mold is closed

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.22 ‑ Typical molding cycle:
(2) melt is injected into cavity

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.22 ‑ Typical molding cycle:
(3) screw is retracted

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.22 ‑ Typical molding cycle:
(4) mold opens and part is ejected

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 The Mold
• The special tool in injection molding
• Custom‑designed and fabricated for the part to
be produced
• When production run is finished, the mold is
replaced with a new mold for the next part
• Various types of mold for injection molding:
– Two-plate mold
– Three-plate mold
– Hot-runner mold
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.23 ‑ Details of a two‑plate mold for thermoplastic injection
molding: (a) closed. Mold has two cavities to produce two cup‑shaped
parts with each injection shot

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.23 ‑ Details of a two‑plate mold for thermoplastic
injection molding: (b) open

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Injection Molding Machines
• Injection molding machines differ in both
injection unit and clamping unit
• The name of the injection molding machine is
generally based on the type of injection unit
used
– Example: Reciprocating-screw machine
• Several clamping designs
– Examples: mechanical (toggle) vs. hydraulic

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Shrinkage
Reduction in linear size during cooling from molding to
room temperature
• Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients,
so significant shrinkage occurs during cooling in mold
• Typical shrinkage values for selected polymers:
Plastic Shrinkage, mm/mm (in/in)
Nylon‑6,6 0.020
Polyethylene 0.025
Polystyrene0.004
PVC 0.005

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Compensation for Shrinkage
• Dimensions of mold cavity must be larger than
specified part dimensions:
Dc = Dp + DpS + DpS2
where Dc = dimension of cavity; Dp = molded part
dimension, and S = shrinkage value
• Third term on right hand side corrects for
shrinkage in the shrinkage

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Shrinkage Factors
• Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage
• Injection pressure – as pressure is increased,
forcing more material into mold cavity, shrinkage
is reduced
• Compaction time - similar effect - forces more
material into cavity during shrinkage
• Molding temperature - higher temperatures lower
polymer melt viscosity, allowing more material to
be packed into mold and reducing shrinkage
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding

Molding of thermoplastic parts that possess dense outer skin

surrounding lightweight foam center
• Part has high stiffness‑to‑weight ratio suited to structural
applications
• Produced either by introducing a gas into molten plastic in
injection unit or by mixing a gas‑producing ingredient with
starting pellets
• During injection, a small amount of melt is forced into
mold cavity, where it expands to fill cavity
• Foam in contact with cold mold surface collapses to form
dense skin, while core retains cellular structure
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Injection Molding of Thermosets
• Equipment and operating procedure must be
modified to avoid premature cross‑linking of TS
polymer
– Reciprocating‑screw injection unit with shorter barrel
length
• Temperatures in barrel are relatively low
• Melt is injected into a heated mold, where
cross‑linking occurs to harden plastic
• Mold is then opened and part is removed
• Curing is the most time‑consuming step in the cycle

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Reaction Injection Molding
Two highly reactive liquid ingredients are mixed and
immediately injected into a mold cavity where
chemical reactions leading to solidification occur
• RIM was developed with polyurethane to produce
large automotive parts such as bumpers and fenders
– RIM polyurethane parts possess a foam internal structure
surrounded by a dense outer skin
• Other materials used in RIM: epoxies, and
urea‑formaldehyde

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Compression Molding
• An old and widely used molding process for
thermosetting plastics
• Applications also include rubber tires and
polymer matrix composite parts
• Molding compound available in several forms:
powders or pellets, liquid, or preform
• Amount of charge must be precisely controlled
to obtain repeatable consistency in the molded
product
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.28 ‑ Compression molding for thermosetting plastics:
(1) charge is loaded, (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and (4)
part is ejected and removed (some details omitted)

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Compression Molding Presses
• Oriented vertically
• Contain two platens to which mold halves are
fastened
• Presses have either of two types of actuation:
1. Upstroke of bottom platen
2. Downstroke of top platen

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Molds for Compression Molding
• Simpler than injection molds
• No sprue and runner system in a compression
mold
• Process itself generally limited to simpler part
geometries due to lower flow capabilities of
TS materials
• Mold must be heated, usually by electric
resistance, steam, or hot oil circulation
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Materials and Products in
Compression Molding
• Materials: phenolics, melamine,
urea‑formaldehyde, epoxies, urethanes, and
elastomers
• Typical TS moldings: electric plugs, sockets,
and housings; pot handles, and dinnerware
plates

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Transfer Molding
TS charge is loaded into a chamber immediately
ahead of mold cavity, where it is heated;
pressure is then applied to force soft polymer
to flow into heated mold where it cures
• Two variants:
– Pot transfer molding - charge is injected from a
"pot" through a vertical sprue channel into cavity
– Plunger transfer molding – plunger injects charge
from a heated well through channels into cavity
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.29 ‑ (a) Pot transfer molding
(1) charge is loaded into pot,
(2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and
(3) part is ejected

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.29 ‑ (b) plunger transfer molding
(1) charge is loaded into pot,
(2) softened polymer is pressed into mold cavity and cured, and
(3) part is ejected

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Compression and Transfer Molding
Compared
• In both processes, scrap is produced each cycle as
leftover material, called the cull
• The TS scrap cannot be recovered
• Transfer molding is capable of molding more intricate
part shapes than compression molding but not as
intricate as injection molding
• Transfer molding lends itself to molding with inserts,
in which a metal or ceramic insert is placed into cavity
prior to injection, and the plastic bonds to insert
during molding
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Blow Molding
Molding process in which air pressure is used to
inflate soft plastic into a mold cavity
• Important for making one‑piece hollow plastic
parts with thin walls, such as bottles
• Since these items are used for consumer
beverages in mass markets, production is
typically organized for very high quantities

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Blow Molding Process
• Accomplished in two steps:
1. Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison
2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape
• Forming the parison is accomplished by
either
– Extrusion or
– Injection molding

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.30 ‑ Extrusion blow molding: (1) extrusion of parison; (2)
parison is pinched at the top and sealed at the bottom around a metal
blow pin as the two halves of the mold come together; (3) the tube is
inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity; and (4) mold is
opened to remove the solidified part

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.32 ‑ Injection blow molding: (1) parison is injected molded
around a blowing rod; (2) injection mold is opened and parison is
transferred to a blow mold; (3) soft polymer is inflated to conform to
the blow mold; and (4) blow mold is opened and blown product is
removed

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Stretch Blow Molding
Variation of injection blow molding in which blowing rod
extends downward into parison in step 2, stretching
the soft plastic for a more favorable stressing of
polymer than conventional blow molding
• Resulting structure is more rigid, with higher
transparency and better impact resistance
• Most widely used material is polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) which has very low permeability
and is strengthened by stretch blow molding
• Combination of properties makes it ideal as container
for carbonated beverages
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Figure 13.33 ‑ Stretch blow molding:
(1) injection molding of parison; (2) stretching; and (3) blowing

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Materials and Products in Blow Molding
• Blow molding is limited to thermoplastics
• Materials: high density polyethylene,
polypropylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC),
and polyethylene terephthalate
• Products: disposable containers for liquid
consumer goods, large shipping drums (55
gallon) for liquids and powders, large storage
tanks (2000 gallon), gasoline tanks, toys, and
hulls for sail boards and small boats
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Thermoforming
Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and
deformed into desired shape using a mold
• Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric
heaters located on one or both sides of starting
plastic sheet or film
• Widely used in packaging of products and to
fabricate large items such as bathtubs,
contoured skylights, and internal door liners for
refrigerators
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Figure 13.35 ‑ Vacuum thermoforming:
(1) a flat plastic sheet is softened by heating

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Figure 13.35 ‑ Vacuum thermoforming:
(2) the softened sheet is placed over a concave mold cavity

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Figure 13.35 ‑ Vacuum thermoforming:
(3) a vacuum draws the sheet into the cavity

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.35 ‑
(4) the plastic
hardens on
contact with the
cold mold
surface, and the
part is removed
and
subsequently
trimmed from
the web

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Negative Molds vs. Positive Molds
Negative mold – concave cavity
Positive mold - convex shape
• Both types are used in thermoforming
• For positive mold, heated sheet is draped over
convex form and negative or positive pressure
forces plastic against mold surface

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
Figure 13.37 ‑ Use of a positive mold in vacuum thermoforming:
(1) the heated plastic sheet is positioned above the convex mold

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Figure 13.37 ‑ Use of a positive mold in vacuum thermoforming:
(2) the clamp is lowered into position, draping the sheet over the mold as
a vacuum forces the sheet against the mold surface

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Materials for Thermoforming
• Only thermoplastics can be thermoformed,
since extruded sheets of thermosetting or
elastomeric polymers have already been
cross‑linked and cannot be softened by
reheating
• Common TP polymers: polystyrene, cellulose
acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, ABS, PVC,
acrylic (polymethylmethacrylate),
polyethylene, and polypropylene
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Applications of Thermoforming
• Thin films: blister packs and skin packs for packaging
commodity products such as cosmetics, toiletries,
small tools, and fasteners (nails, screws, etc.)
– For best efficiency, filling process to containerize item(s)
is placed immediately downstream from thermoforming
• Thicker sheet stock: boat hulls, shower stalls,
advertising displays and signs, bathtubs, certain
toys, contoured skylights, internal door liners for
refrigerators

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Casting
Pouring liquid resin into a mold, using gravity to
fill cavity, where polymer hardens
• Both thermoplastics and thermosets are cast
– Thermoplastics: acrylics, polystyrene, polyamides
(nylons) and PVC
– Thermosetting polymers: polyurethane, unsaturated
polyesters, phenolics, and epoxies
• Simpler mold
• Suited to low quantities
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Polymer Foam
A polymer‑and‑gas mixture that gives the
material a porous or cellular structure
• Most common polymer foams: polystyrene
(Styrofoam, a trademark), polyurethane
• Other polymers: natural rubber ("foamed
rubber") and polyvinylchloride (PVC)

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Characteristic Properties of a Foamed
Polymer
• Low density
• High strength per unit weight
• Good thermal insulation
• Good energy absorbing qualities

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Classification of Polymer Foams
• Elastomeric - matrix polymer is a rubber, capable
of large elastic deformation
• Flexible - matrix is a highly plasticized polymer
such as soft PVC
• Rigid - polymer is a stiff thermoplastic such as
polystyrene or a thermoset such as a phenolic
• Depending on chemical formulation and degree
of cross‑linking, polyurethanes can range over all
three categories
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Applications of Polymer Foams
• Characteristic properties of polymer foams, and
the ability to control elastic behavior by
selection of base polymer, make these
materials suitable for certain applications
• Applications: hot beverage cups, heat insulating
structural materials, cores for structural panels,
packaging materials, cushion materials for
furniture and bedding, padding for automobile
dashboards, and products requiring buoyancy
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Figure 13.40 ‑ Two polymer foam structures:
(a) closed cell and (b) open cell

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Extrusion of Polystyrene Foams
• Polystyrene is a thermoplastic polymer
• A physical or chemical blowing agent is fed
into polymer melt near die end of extruder
barrel; thus, extrudate consists of expanded
polymer
• Products: large sheets and boards that are
subsequently cut to size for heat insulation
panels and sections

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Molding Processes for
Polystyrene Foams
• Expandable foam molding - molding material
usually consists of prefoamed polystyrene
beads
• Prefoamed beads are fed into mold cavity
where they are further expanded and fused
together to form molded product
• Products: hot beverage cups of polystyrene
foam are produced in this way

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Shaping Processes for
Polyurethane Foams
• Polyurethane can be thermosetting, elastomer or
thermoplastic (less common)
• Polyurethane foam products are made in a one‑step
process in which the two liquid ingredients are mixed
and immediately fed into a mold or other form
– Polymer is synthesized and part geometry is created at
the same time
• Shaping processes for polyurethane foam:
– Spraying
– Pouring

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines for Plastics –
General - I
• Strength and stiffness
– Plastics are not as strong or stiff as metals
– Avoid applications where high stresses will be
encountered
– Creep resistance is also a limitation
– Strength‑to‑weight ratios for some plastics are
competitive with metals in certain applications

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines for Plastics –
General - II
• Impact Resistance
– Capacity of plastics to absorb impact is generally
good; plastics compare favorably with most metals
• Service temperatures
– Plastics are limited relative to engineering metals
and ceramics
• Thermal expansion
– Dimensional changes due to temperature changes
much more significant than for metals
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines for Plastics –
General - III
• Many plastics are subject to degradation from
sunlight and other forms of radiation
• Some plastics degrade in oxygen and ozone
atmospheres
• Plastics are soluble in many common solvents
• Plastics are resistant to conventional corrosion
mechanisms that afflict many metals

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Extruded Plastics - I
• Wall thickness
– Uniform wall thickness is desirable in an extruded
cross‑section
– Variations in wall thickness result in nonuniform
plastic flow and uneven cooling which tend to
warp extrudate

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Extruded Plastics - II
• Hollow sections
– Hollow sections complicate die design and plastic
flow
– Desirable to use extruded cross‑sections that are
not hollow yet satisfy functional requirements

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Extruded Plastics III
• Corners
– Sharp corners, inside and outside, should be
avoided in extruded cross‑sections, since they
result in uneven flow during processing and stress
concentrations in the final product

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Molded Parts - I
• Economic production quantities
– Each part requires a unique mold, and the mold
for any molding process can be costly, particularly
for injection molding
– Minimum production quantities for injection
molding are usually around 10,000 pieces
– For compression molding, minimum quantities are
1000 parts, due to simpler mold designs
– Transfer molding lies between other two

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Molded Parts - II
• Part complexity
– Although more complex part geometries mean
more costly molds, it may nevertheless be
economical to design a complex molding if the
alternative involves many individual components
that must be assembled
– An advantage of plastic molding is that it allows
multiple functional features to be combined into
one part

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Molded Parts - III
• Wall thickness
– Thick cross‑sections are wasteful of material, more
likely to cause warping due to shrinkage, and take
longer to harden
• Reinforcing ribs
– Achieves increased stiffness without excessive wall
thickness
– Ribs should be made thinner than the walls they
reinforce to minimize sink marks on outside wall
ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Molded Parts - IV
• Corner radii and fillets
– Sharp corners, both external and internal, are
undesirable in molded parts; they interrupt
smooth flow of the melt, tend to create surface
defects, and cause stress concentrations in the
part
• Holes
– Holes are quite feasible in plastic moldings, but
they complicate mold design and part removal

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Molded Parts - V
• Draft
– A molded part should be designed with a draft on
its sides to facilitate removal from mold
– Especially important on inside wall of a
cup‑shaped part because plastic contracts against
positive mold shape
– Recommended draft:
• For thermosets, around 1/2 to 1
• For thermoplastics, between 1/8 and 1/2

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering
 Product Design Guidelines –
Molded Parts - VI
• Tolerances
– Although shrinkage is predictable under closely
controlled conditions, generous tolerances are
desirable for injection moldings because of
• Variations in process parameters that affect shrinkage
• Diversity of part geometries encountered

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes

Engineering