Introduction to Embedded Systems

by Shibu K V
CT-4233
Chapter-1
Introduction to Embedded Systems
• What is an Embedded System?
An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to
perform a specific function and is a combination of both hardware and
firmware(software).

Embedded Systems are designed for a specific application.

Embedded Systems vs. General Computing Systems

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System

A system which is a combination of a generic A system which is a combination of special
hardware and a General Purpose Operating purpose hardware and embedded OS for
System for executing a variety of applications. executing a specific set of applications
Contains a General Purpose Operating May or may not contain an operating system for
System(GPOS) functioning
Applications are alterable (programmable) by the The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
user. programmed and it is non-alterable by the end-
user.
Performance is the key deciding factor in the Application-specific requirements are the key
selection of the system. Always, ‘Faster is Better’ deciding factors
Less/not at all to reduce power requirements Highly to take advantage of the power saving
Response requirements are not time-critical The response time requirement is highly critical
Need not be deterministic in execution behavior Execution behavior is deterministic (Hard Real
Time System)
History of Embedded Systems
• Classification Based on Generation(First, Second, Third)
• Classification Based on Complexity and Performance
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems
•Purpose of Embedded Systems
1.Data collection/ Storage/ Representation
2.Data communication
3.Data (signal) processing
4.Monitoring
5.Control
6.Application specific user interface
Chapter 2
The Typical Embedded System
• Core of the Embedded System

Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a central processing unit(CPU), A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a
which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as logical CPU, scratchpad RAM, special and general purpose register
operations according to a pre-defined set of instructions arrays, on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage,
timer and interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It is a self-contained unit.
Most of the time general purpose in design and operation Mostly application-oriented or domain-specific
Doesn’t contain a buit in I/O port Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O ports
Targeted for high end market where performance is important Targeted for embedded market where performance is not so
critical
Limited power saving options compared to microcontrollers Includes lot of power saving features
RISC CISC

Lesser number of instructions Greater number of Instructions

Instruction pipelining and increased execution speed Generally no instruction pipelining feature

Orthogonal instruction set (Allows each instruction to operate Non-orthogonal instruction set
on any register and use addressing mode)
Operations are performed on registers only, the only memory Operations are performed on registers or memory depending on
operations are load and store the instruction
A large number of registers are available Limited number of general purpose registers

Programmer needs to write more code to execute a task since Instructions are like macros in C languages
the instructions are simpler ones
Single, fixed length instructions Variable length instructions

Less silicon usage and pin count Instructions are like macros in C language

Single,fixed length instructions Variable length instructions

Less silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage

With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture

Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture
Separate buses for instruction and data fetching Single shared bus for instruction and data fetching
Easier to pipeline, so high performance can be achieved Low performance compared to Harvard architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment problems Allows self modifying codes
Since data memory and program memory are stored physically Since data memory and program memory are stored physically
in different locations, no chances for accidental corruption of in the same chip, chances for accidental corruption of program
program memory memory
Figure: Little-Endian operation Figure: Big-Endian operation
 Memory

Classification of Program Memory(ROM)

Masked ROM(MROM)

• One-time programmable device

• Makes use of the hardwired technology for storing data
• Factory programmed by masking and metallization process at the time of
production itself, according to the data provided by the end user
• Low cost for high volume production
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

• Not pre-programmed by the manufacturer

• The end user is responsible for programming these devicesn
• This memory has nichrome or polysilicon wires arranged in a matrix
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

• Flexibility to re-program the same chip

• EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of a FET.
• It needs to be taken out of the circuit board and put in a UV eraser device for 20
or 30 minutes
• It is a tedious and time-consuming process
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

• Can be altered by using electrical signals at the register/Byte level

• Can be erased in a few milliseconds and reprogrammed in-circuit
• Provides greater flexibility for system design
Flash

• Latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology used in today’s
embedded designs
• Is organized as sectors(blocks) or pages
• Flash memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors
• The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting
the others sectors or pages
• Erasable capacity of FLASH is 1000 cycles
NVRAM (Non-volatile RAM)

• Random access memory with battery backup

• It contains static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply
to the memory in the absence of external power supply
• It is used for the non-volatile storage of results of operations or for setting up of
flags
Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory(RAM)
Static RAM

• Stores data in the form of voltage and are made up of flip-flops

• SRAM cell (bit) is realized using 6 transistors (or 6 MOSFETs)
• Major limitations of SRAM are low capacity and high cost
SRAM cell DRAM cell
Made up of 6 CMOS transistors(MOSFET) Made up of a MOSFET and a capacitor
Doesn’t require refreshing Requires refreshing
Low capacity (Less dense) High capacity (Highly dense)
More expensive Less expensive
Fast in operation. Typical access time is Slow in operation due to refresh
10ns requirements. Typical access time is
60ns. Write operation is faster than read
operation.
Sensors
A sensor is a transducer device that converts energy from one form to another for any
measurement or control purpose.

Actuators
Actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to
corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator acts as an output device.
Stepper Motor
An electro-mechanical device which generates discrete displacement (motion) in response to
dc electrical signals.
The dc motor produces continuous rotation on applying dc voltage whereas a stepper motor
produces discrete rotation in response to the dc voltage applied to it. Eg: printer/fax
 Unipolar
 Bipolar

Unipolar
 two windings per phase
 Clockwise or anticlockwise
 Current in one direction flows through one coil and in the opposite direction flows through
the other coil
Figure: 2-Phase unipolar stepper motor
Bipolar
 Single winding per phase
 For reversing the motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed
dynamically

Full Step
Wave Step

Half Step
Figure: Interfacing of stepper motor through driver circuit
Relay

• Electro-mechanical device
• Dynamic path selectors for signals and power
• Relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a metal armature with
one or more contacts
• When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which
in turn generates a magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the armature core
and moves the contact point.
Figure: Transistor based Relay driving circuit
Communication Interface

• Onboard Communication Interfaces

Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C)
Synchronous bi-directional half duplex two wire serial interface bus
Was developed by ‘Philips semiconductors’ in the early 1980s
Figure: I2C Bus Interfacing
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus

• Synchronous bi-directional full duplex four-wire serial interface bus

• Was introduced by Motorola
• Single master multi-slave system
• SPI requires four signal lines for communication
Master Out Slave In(MOSI)
Master In Slave Out(MISO)
Serial Clock(SCLK)
Slave Slect(SS)
Figure: SPI bus Interfacing
Universal Asychronous Receiver Transmitter(UART)

• Asynchronous form of serial data transmission

• Doesn’t require a clock signal to synchronise the transmitting and receiving end for
transmission
• Pre-defined agreement between the transmitting device and receiving device
• The serial communication settings for both transmitter and receiver should be set as identical.

Figure: UART Interfacing

 1-Wire Interface
• Asynchronous half-duplex communication protocol developed by Maxim Dallas Semiconductor
• Is also known as Dallas 1-Wire Protocol

Figure: 1-Wire Interface bus

Parallel Interface

Figure: Parallel Interface Bus

External Communication Interface

RS-232 C & RS-485

• Legacy, full duplex, wired, asynchronous serial communication interface
• Is developed by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) during the early 1960s

Figure: DB-9 and DB-25 RS-232 Connector Interface

Universal Serial Bus (USB)
IEEE 1394 (Firewire)
Infrared (IrDA)
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

ZigBee
• Low power, low cost, wireless network communication protocol based on the IEEE
802.15.4.2006 standard
• Secure applications for Wireless Personal Area Networking (WPAN)
• Zigbee alliance (www.zigbee.org)
Other system components

• Reset Circuit
• Brown-out Protection Circuit
• Oscillator Unit
• Real-time Clock(RTC)
• Watchdog Timer