Earthquakes

Earthquakes
Alaa M. Omar Geophysics Department

2nd Year
 Contents:
Contents
1. Overview on Earth structure and plate tectonics.
2. Definitions around earthquakes.
3. Causes of earthquakes.
4. Recording of earthquakes.
5. Effects of earthquakes.
6. Safety precautions.
Introduction:
Each year, more than 150,000 earthquakes are recorded by the
WWNSS and are analyzed, with the aid of computers, at the
earthquake data center in Boulder, Colorado. With this system
the exact location, depth, and magnitude of the detectable
earthquakes are plotted on regional maps, and information
about the direction of fault movement associated with the
shock is determined. As a result we able to monitor the details
of present plate motion. Indeed, seismology provides some
evidence in support of the theory of plate tectonics. But that’s
not all. In addition, seismic waves provide the most effective
probe to the earth’s interior.
Basic Definitions:
• Earthquake: Vibrations of the earth caused by the
rapture and sudden movement of rocks
that have been strained beyond their
elastic limit.
• Focus: The point within the earth where the initial

slippage occurs to generate earthquake energy.
• Epicenter: The point on the earth’s surface directly

above the focus.
• Three Types of Waves Generated by an
Earthquake:
• P (primary) waves: In which particles move back and forth
in the direction the wave travels.
• S (secondary) waves: In which particles move back and

forth at right angles to the direction the wave travels.
• Surface waves: Which travel only in the outer layers of

the earth and are similar to waves on water, and it is divided
to Rayleigh, and Love waves .
• Difference between magnitude and intensity
of earthquake:
• Magnitude: A measure of the amount of energy released,
and is much more precise measure of earthquake than
intensity, based on direct measurement of the amplitude of
seismic wave.
• Intensity: It is measured on relation to the effects the
earthquake had on human life and generally described in
terms of destruction ‫ ــــ‬buildings, dams, bridges, based on
reports by witnesses, and it depend on:
1. Total amount of energy released.
2. The distance from the epicenter.
3. Type of rock and degree of consolidation.
Richter scale…An expression of magnitude with an arbitrary
zero for the lowest limits of detection. Each step on the scale
represents an increase in amplitude by a factor of 10. Thus, an
earthquake with a mag. of 2 produces vibrations with 10 times the
amp. of one with mag. of 1, and an earthquake with a mag. of 8
has an amp. 1 million times greater than one with a mag. of 2.
Magnitude Earthquake effects Estimated
number each
year
2.5 or less Usually not felt, but can be recorded. 900,000
2.5 to 5.4 Often felt, but causes minor damage. 30,000
5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings an other 500

structures.
6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage in very populated 100

areas.
7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. Serious damage. 20
8.0 or Great earthquake. Can totally destroy 5 to 10 years

greater communities near the epicenter. Which
equal more than 1 billion tons TNT.
Mercalli Intensity Magnitude Witness Observations
(at epicenter)
I 1 to 2 Felt by very few people; barely noticeable.
II 2 to 3 Felt by a few people, especially on upper floors.
III 3 to 4 Noticeable indoors, especially on upper floors, but may not be recognized
as an earthquake.
IV 4 Felt by many indoors, few outdoors. May feel like heavy truck passing by.
V 4 to 5 Felt by almost everyone, some people awakened. Small objects moved.

Trees and poles may shake.
VI 5 to 6 Felt by everyone. Difficult to stand. Some heavy furniture moved, some

plaster falls. Chimneys may be slightly damaged.
VII 6 Slight to moderate damage in well built, ordinary structures. Considerable

damage to poorly built structures.
VIII 6 to 7 Little damage in specially built structures. Considerable damage to

ordinary buildings, severe damage to poorly built structures.
IX 7 Considerable damage to specially built structures, buildings shifted off

foundations. Ground cracked noticeably. Wholesale destruction.
X 7 to 8 Most masonry and frame structures and their foundations destroyed.

Ground badly cracked. Landslides. Wholesale destruction.
XI 8 Total damage. Few, if any, structures standing. Bridges destroyed. Wide

cracks in ground. Waves seen on ground.
XII 8 or greater Total damage. Waves seen on ground. Objects thrown up into air.
Causes of Earthquake:
1. Faults ( Kalabsh fault in Aswan).
2. Volcanic activity.
3. Other causes include meteorite impacts,

undersea landslides and explosion of
nuclear bombs.
shallow-focus
earthquake (70 km)
Intermediate-focus earthquake
(70 to 300 km)
Deep-focus earthquake (300

to 700 km) at convergent plate
boundary
Depth of focus α 1/ Max. energy released

Recording of Earthquake:
• Calculating the magnitude:
1. Measure the distance between the first P wave and the first S
wave. In this case, the first P and S waves are 24 seconds
apart.
2. Find the point for 24 seconds on the left side of the chart
below and mark that point. According to the chart, this
earthquake's epicenter was 215 kilometers away.
3. Measure the amplitude of the strongest wave. The amplitude
is the height (on paper) of the strongest wave. On this
seismogram, the amplitude is 23 millimeters. Find 23
millimeters on the right side of the chart and mark that point.
4. Place a ruler on the chart between the points you marked for
the distance to the epicenter and the amplitude. The point
where your ruler crosses the middle line on the chart marks
the magnitude (strength) of the earthquake. This earthquake
had a magnitude of 5.
•Finding the epicenter:
1. Check the scale on your map. It should look something like a
piece of a ruler. All maps are different. On your map, one
centimeter could be equal to 100 kilometers or something like
that.
2. Figure out how long the distance to the epicenter (in
centimeters) is on your map. For example, say your map has
a scale where one centimeter is equal to 100 kilometers. If
the epicenter of the earthquake is 215 kilometers away, that
equals 2.15 centimeters on the map.
3. Using your compass, draw a circle with a radius equal to the
number you came up with in Step #2. The center of the circle
will be the location of your seismograph. The epicenter of the
earthquake is somewhere on the edge of that circle.
4. Do the same thing for the distance to the epicenter that the
other seismograms recorded (with the location of those
seismographs at the center of their circles).
5. All of the circles should overlap. The point where all of the
circles overlap is the approximate epicenter of the
earthquake.
The focus of an earthquake is determined from the time
elapsing between the arrivals of the three types of seismic
waves.
The time interval between the arrival of the P wave and S wave
is a function of the distance from the epicenter.
Seismologists have constructed time-distance graphs that can

be used to determine the distance to the epicenter of a new
quake.
The seismic records indicate the distance, but not the direction,
to the epicenter; therefore, records from at least three stations
are necessary to locate the epicenter.
•Time-distance curve:
Effects of Earthquake:
1. Violent ground motion accompanying movement
along a fracture. This motion can shear and collapse
buildings, dams, tunnels.
2. Landslides, Tsunamis, and regional or local
submergence of the land.
3. Fires.
4. Flooding (seiches).
•Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World:
Location Deaths
January 23, 1556 China, Shansi 830,000
October 11, 1737 India, Calcutta 300,000
August 9, 1138 Syria, Aleppo 230,000
May 22, 1927 China, near Xining 200,000
December 22, 856+ Iran, Damghan 200,000
December 16, 1920 China, Gansu 200,000
March 23, 893+ Iran, Ardabil 150,000
September 1, 1923 Japan, Kwanto 143,000
December 28, 1908 Italy, Messina 70,000
September, 1290 China, Chihli 100,000
November, 1667 Caucasia, Shemakha 80,000
November 18, 1727 Iran, Tabriz 77,000
November 1, 1755 Portugal, Lisbon 70,000
December 25, 1932 China, Gansu 70,000
May 31, 1970 Peru 66,000
Safety Precautions:
• What to Do Before an Earthquake?
• Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a flashlight, and extra
batteries at home.
• Learn first aid.
• Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
• Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
• Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
• What to Do During an Earthquake?

• If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a doorway, or crawl under
heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows and outside doors.
• If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall. Stay away from
buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on you).
• Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.
• If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.
• Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).
• What to Do After an Earthquake?

• Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.
• Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves. Check for the
smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave immediately.
• Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from cutting your feet.
• Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis sometimes hit after the ground has stopped shaking.
• Expect aftershocks.
The End

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Earthquakes

Alaa M. Omar Geophysics Department

2. Definitions around earthquakes.

• Focus: The point within the earth where the initial

• Epicenter: The point on the earth’s surface directly

• S (secondary) waves: In which particles move back and

• Surface waves: Which travel only in the outer layers of

2.5 to 5.4 Often felt, but causes minor damage. 30,000

5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings an other 500

6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage in very populated 100

7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. Serious damage. 20

8.0 or Great earthquake. Can totally destroy 5 to 10 years

I 1 to 2 Felt by very few people; barely noticeable.

II 2 to 3 Felt by a few people, especially on upper floors.

V 4 to 5 Felt by almost everyone, some people awakened. Small objects moved.

VI 5 to 6 Felt by everyone. Difficult to stand. Some heavy furniture moved, some

VII 6 Slight to moderate damage in well built, ordinary structures. Considerable

VIII 6 to 7 Little damage in specially built structures. Considerable damage to

IX 7 Considerable damage to specially built structures, buildings shifted off

X 7 to 8 Most masonry and frame structures and their foundations destroyed.

XI 8 Total damage. Few, if any, structures standing. Bridges destroyed. Wide

3. Other causes include meteorite impacts,

Deep-focus earthquake (300

Depth of focus α 1/ Max. energy released

Seismologists have constructed time-distance graphs that can

• What to Do During an Earthquake?

• What to Do After an Earthquake?

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