Programming Logic and Design

Seventh Edition
Chapter 2
Elements of High-Quality Programs
 Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
• Declaring and using variables and constants
• Performing arithmetic operations
• The advantages of modularization
• Modularizing a program
• Hierarchy charts
• Features of good program design

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 Declaring and Using Variables
and Constants
• Data types
– Numeric consists of numbers
– String is anything not used in math
• Different forms
– Integers and floating-point numbers
– Literal and string constants
– Unnamed constants

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 Working with Variables
• Named memory locations
• Contents can vary or differ over time
• Declaration
– Statement that provides a data type and an identifier for a
variable
• Identifier
– Variable’s name

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Working with Variables (continued)

Figure 2-1 Flowchart and pseudocode for the number-doubling program

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Working with Variables (continued)
• Data type
– Classification that describes:
• What values can be held by the item
• How the item is stored in computer memory
• What operations can be performed on the data item
• Initializing the variable
– Declare a starting value for any variable
• Garbage
– Variable’s unknown value before initialization

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 Figure 2-2 Flowchart and pseudocode of number-doubling
program with variable declarations
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 Naming Variables
• Programmer chooses reasonable and descriptive
names for variables
• Programming languages have rules for creating
identifiers
– Most languages allow letters and digits
– Some languages allow hyphens
– Reserved keywords are not allowed
• Variable names are case sensitive

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 Naming Variables (continued)
• Camel casing
– Variable names such as hourlyWage have a “hump” in
the middle
• Be descriptive
– Must be one word
– Must start with a letter
– Should have some appropriate meaning

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 Assigning Values to Variables
• Assignment statement
– set myAnswer = myNumber * 2
• Assignment operator
– Equal sign
– Always operates from right to left
• Valid
– set someNumber = 2
– set someOtherNumber = someNumber
• Not valid
– set 2 + 4 = someNumber

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 Understanding the Data Types of
Variables
• Numeric variable
– Holds digits
– Can perform mathematical operations on it
• String variable
– Can hold text
– Letters of the alphabet
– Special characters such as punctuation marks
• Type-safety
– Prevents assigning values of an incorrect data type

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 Declaring Named Constants
• Named constant
– Similar to a variable
– Can be assigned a value only once
– Assign a useful name to a value that will never be changed
during a program’s execution
• Magic number
– Unnamed constant
– Use taxAmount = price * SALES_TAX_AMOUNT
instead of taxAmount = price * .06

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 Performing Arithmetic Operations
• Standard arithmetic operators:
+ (plus sign)—addition
− (minus sign)—subtraction
* (asterisk)—multiplication
/ (slash)—division

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 Performing Arithmetic Operations
(continued)
• Rules of precedence
– Also called the order of operations
– Dictate the order in which operations in the same
statement are carried out
– Expressions within parentheses are evaluated first
– Multiplication and division are evaluated next
• From left to right
– Addition and subtraction are evaluated next
• From left to right

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 Performing Arithmetic Operations
(continued)
• Left-to-right associativity
– Operations with the same precedence take place from left
to right

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 Performing Arithmetic Operations
(continued)

Table 2-1 Precedence and associativity of five common operators

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 Understanding the Advantages
of Modularization
• Modules
– Subunit of programming problem
– Also called subroutines, procedures, functions, or
methods
• Modularization
– Breaking down a large program into modules
– Reasons
• Abstraction
• Allows multiple programmers to work on a problem
• Reuse your work more easily

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 Modularization Provides
Abstraction
• Abstraction
– Paying attention to important properties while ignoring
nonessential details
– Selective ignorance
• Newer high-level programming languages
– Use English-like vocabulary
– One broad statement corresponds to dozens of machine
instructions
• Modules provide another way to achieve abstraction

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 Modularization Allows Multiple
Programmers to Work on a Problem
• Easier to divide the task among various people
• Rarely does a single programmer write a commercial
program
– Professional software developers can write new programs
quickly by dividing large programs into modules
– Assign each module to an individual programmer or team

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 Modularization Allows You to
Reuse Work
• Reusability
– Feature of modular programs
– Allows individual modules to be used in a variety of
applications
– Many real-world examples of reusability
• Reliability
– Assures that a module has been tested and proven to
function correctly

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 Modularizing a Program
• Main program
– Basic steps (mainline logic) of the program
• Include in a module
– Module header
– Module body
– Module return statement
• Naming a module
– Similar to naming a variable
– Module names are followed by a set of parentheses

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 Modularizing a Program
(continued)
• When a main program wants to use a module
– “Calls” the module’s name
• Flowchart
– Symbol used to call a module is a rectangle with a bar
across the top
– Place the name of the module you are calling inside the
rectangle
– Draw each module separately with its own sentinel
symbols

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 Figure 2-3 Program that produces a bill using only main program
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 Modularizing a Program
(continued)
• Statements taken out of a main program and put into
a module have been encapsulated
• Main program becomes shorter and easier to
understand
• Modules are reusable
• When statements contribute to the same job, we get
greater functional cohesion

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 Figure 2-5 The billing program with constants declared within the module
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 Declaring Variables and Constants
within Modules
• Place any statements within modules
– Input, processing, and output statements
– Variable and constant declarations
• Variables and constants declared in a module are
usable only within the module
– Visible
– In scope, also called local
• Portable
– Self-contained units that are easily transported

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 Declaring Variables and Constants
within Modules (continued)
• Global variables and constants
– Declared at the program level
– Visible to and usable in all the modules called by the
program
– Many programmers avoid global variables to minimize
errors

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 Understanding the Most Common
Configuration for Mainline Logic
• Mainline logic of almost every procedural computer
program follows a general structure
– Declarations for global variables and constants
– Housekeeping tasks
– Detail loop tasks
– End-of-job tasks

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 Understanding the Most Common
Configuration for Mainline Logic (cont’d)

Figure 2-6 Flowchart and pseudocode of

mainline logic for a typical procedural program
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 Creating Hierarchy Charts
• Hierarchy chart
– Shows the overall picture of how modules are related to
one another
– Tells you which modules exist within a program and which
modules call others
– Specific module may be called from several locations
within a program
• Planning tool
– Develop the overall relationship of program modules
before you write them
• Documentation tool
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 Features of Good Program Design
• Use program comments where appropriate
• Identifiers should be chosen carefully
• Strive to design clear statements within your
programs and modules
• Write clear prompts and echo input
• Continue to maintain good programming habits as
you develop your programming skills

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 Using Program Comments
• Program comments
– Written explanations of programming statements
– Not part of the program logic
– Serve as documentation for readers of the program
• Syntax used differs among programming languages
• Flowchart
– Use an annotation symbol to hold information that
expands on what is stored within another flowchart
symbol

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 Using Program Comments
(continued)

Figure 2-12 Pseudocode that declares some variables and includes comments

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 Figure 2-13 Flowchart that includes annotation symbols

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 Choosing Identifiers
• General guidelines
– Give a variable or a constant a name that is a noun
(because it represents a thing)
– Give a module an identifier that is a verb (because it
performs an action)
– Use meaningful names
• Self-documenting
– Use pronounceable names
– Be judicious in your use of abbreviations
– Avoid digits in a name

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 Choosing Identifiers (continued)
• General guidelines (continued)
– Use the system your language allows to separate words in
long, multiword variable names
– Consider including a form of the verb to be
– Name constants using all uppercase letters separated by
underscores (_)
• Programmers create a list of all variables
– Data dictionary

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 Designing Clear Statements
• Avoid confusing line breaks
• Use temporary variables to clarify long statements

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 Avoiding Confusing Line Breaks
• Most modern programming languages are
free-form
• Make sure your meaning is clear
• Do not combine multiple statements on one line

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 Using Temporary Variables to
Clarify Long Statements
• Temporary variable
– Work variable
– Not used for input or output
– Working variable that you use during a program’s
execution
• Consider using a series of temporary variables to
hold intermediate results

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 Using Temporary Variables to Clarify
Long Statements (continued)

Figure 2-14 Two ways of achieving the same salespersonCommission result

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 Writing Clear Prompts and Echoing
Input
• Prompt
– Message displayed on a monitor to ask the user for a
response
– Used both in command-line and GUI interactive programs
• Echoing input
– Repeating input back to a user either in a subsequent
prompt or in output

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 Writing Clear Prompts and Echoing
Input (continued)

Figure 2-15 Beginning of a program

that accepts a name and balance as input

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 Figure 2-16 Beginning of a program that accepts a
name and balance as input and uses a separate prompt for each item
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 Maintaining Good Programming
Habits
• Every program you write will be better if you:
– Plan before you code
– Maintain the habit of first drawing flowcharts or writing
pseudocode
– Desk-check your program logic on paper
– Think carefully about the variable and module names you
use
– Design your program statements to be easy to read and
use

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 Summary
• Programs contain literals, variables, and named
constants
• Arithmetic follows rules of precedence
• Break down programming problems into modules
– Include a header, a body, and a return statement
• Hierarchy charts show relationship among modules
• As programs become more complicated:
– Need for good planning and design increases

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