Chapter 6

DC to AC Conversion
(INVERTER)

• General concept
• Single-phase inverter
• Harmonics
• Modulation
• Three-phase inverter
 DC to AC Converter (Inverter)
• DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power by
switching the DC input voltage (or current) in a
pre-determined sequence so as to generate AC
voltage (or current) output.

• General block diagram

IDC Iac

+ +

VDC Vac



• TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
– Un-interruptible power supply (UPS), Industrial
(induction motor) drives, Traction, HVDC
 Simple square-wave inverter (1)

• To illustrate the concept of AC waveform

generation

SQUARE-WAVE
INVERTER

T1 T3
D1 D3

+ VO -
VDC
IO
T4 T2
D2 D4

EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

S1 S3

S4 S2
 AC Waveform Generation

S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2

vO

S1 S3 VDC

VDC
t
+ vO  t1 t2
S4 S2

S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t2 < t < t3

vO

S1 S3

VDC t2 t3
+ vO  t

S4 S2
-VDC
 AC Waveforms
INVERTER OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Vdc

 

-Vdc

FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
V1
4VDC


3RD HARMONIC
V1
3

5RD HARMONIC
V1
5
 Harmonics Filtering
DC SUPPLY INVERTER (LOW PASS) FILTER LOAD
L
+ +
C
vO 1 vO 2



BEFORE FILTERING AFTER FILTERING

vO 1 vO 2

• Output of the inverter is “chopped AC voltage with

zero DC component”. It contain harmonics.

• An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at

the inverter output to reduce the high frequency
harmonics.

• In some applications such as UPS, “high purity” sine

wave output is required. Good filtering is a must.
• In some applications such as AC motor drive,
filtering is not required.
 Variable Voltage Variable
Frequency Capability

Vdc2 Higher input voltage

Higher frequency

Vdc1 Lower input voltage

Lower frequency
T1 T2 t

• Output voltage frequency can be varied by “period”

of the square-wave pulse.

• Output voltage amplitude can be varied by varying

the “magnitude” of the DC input voltage.

• Very useful: e.g. variable speed induction motor

drive
 Output voltage harmonics/
distortion

• Harmonics cause distortion on the output voltage.

• Lower order harmonics (3rd, 5th etc) are very

difficult to filter, due to the filter size and high filter
order. They can cause serious voltage distortion.

• Why need to consider harmonics?

– Sinusoidal waveform quality.
– “Power Quality” issue.
– Harmonics may cause degradation of
equipment. Equipment need to be “de-rated”.

• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to

determine the “quality” of a given waveform.
 Fourier Series

• Study of harmonics requires understanding of wave

shapes. Fourier Series is a tool to analyse wave
shapes.

Fourier Series
1 2
ao   f (v)d (" DC" term)
 0
1 2
an   f (v) cos n  d (" cos" term)
 0
1 2
bn   f (v) sin  n  d ("sin" term)
 0
Inverse Fourier
1 
f (v)  ao    an cos n  bn sin n 
2 n 1
where   t
 Harmonics of square-wave (1)

Vdc

=t
 

-Vdc

1  2 
ao    Vdc d    Vdc d   0
  0  
Vdc  2 
an    cos n  d   cos n  d   0
  0  
Vdc  2 
bn    sin  n  d   sin  n  d 
  0  
Harmonics of square wave (2)

Solving,
V
 
bn  dc  cos n  0  cos n  
n

2

Vdc
  (cos 0  cos n )  (cos 2n  cos n )
n
Vdc
  (1  cos n )  (1  cos n )
n
2V
 dc  (1  cos n )
n

When n is even, cos n  1

bn 0
(i.e. even harmonics do not exist)

When n is odd, cos n  1

4Vdc
bn
n
 Quasi-square wave (QSW)
Vdc
  

 2

-Vdc

Note that an  0. (due to half - wave symmetry)

 1  
bn  2   Vdc sin  n d  
 
 2Vdc
 n
  
 cos n  
2Vdc
  cos n   cos n     
n
Expanding :
cos n      cos n  n 
 cos n cos n  sin n sin n  cos n cos n
2V
 bn  dc  cos n   cos n cos n 
n
2Vdc
 cos n  1  cos n 
n
 Harmonics control
If n is even,  bn  0,
4Vdc
If n is odd,  bn  cos n 
n
In particular, amplitude of the fundamental is :
4Vdc
b1  cos  


Note :
The fundamental , b1 , is controlled by varying α
Harmonics can also be controlled by adjusting  ,

Harmonics Elimination :
For example if   30o , then b3  0, or the third
harmonic is eliminated from the waveform. In
general, harmonic n will be eliminated if :
90o

n
 Half-bridge inverter (1)

S1 ON
Vdc S2 OFF
+
S1 2
VC1
-
 V +
Vdc o
G 0
t
RL
+
VC2 S2
- Vdc

2 S1 OFF
S2 ON

• Also known as the “inverter leg”.

• Basic building block for full bridge, three phase and

higher order inverters.

• G is the “centre point”.

• Both capacitors have the same value. Thus the DC

link is equally “spilt” into two.

• The top and bottom switch has to be

“complementary”, i.e. If the top switch is closed (on),
the bottom must be off, and vice-versa.
 Practice problem

The single-phase half-bridge inverter has a resistive load of R = 2.4 Ω

and the dc input voltage is Vs = 48V. Determine (a) the rms output
voltage at the fundamental frequency Vo1, (b) the output power Po, (c)
the average and peak currents of each transistor, (d) the peak reverse
blocking voltage VBR of each transistor, (e) the average supply current
Is, (f) the THD, (g) the DF, and (h) the HF and LOH.

15
 Single-phase, full-bridge (1)
• Full bridge (single phase) is built from two half-
bridge leg.

• The switching in the second leg is “delayed by 180

degrees” from the first leg.

VRG
Vdc
2
LEG R LEG R'  2 t
+
Vdc Vdc
S1 S3 
2 VR 'G 2
+ - Vdc
 Vo - 2
Vdc R R'
G  2 t
-

+ Vdc

2
Vdc S4 S2 Vo
2
Vdc
-
 2 t
Vo  V RG  VR 'G
G is " virtual groumd"

 Vdc
 Practice problem
The bridge inverter in Figure 6.3a has an RLC load with R = 10 Ω,L =
31.5mH,and C = 112μF. The inverter frequency is f0 = 60Hz and dc input voltage
is Vs = 220V. (a) Express the instantaneous load current in Fourier series.
Calculate (b) the rms load current at the fundamental frequency Io1, (c) the THD
of the load current, (d) the power absorbed by the load P0 and the fundamental
power P01, (e) the average current of dc supply Is, and (f) the rms and peak
current of each transistor. (g) Draw the waveform of fundamental load current
and show the conduction intervals of transistors and diodes. Calculate the
conduction time of (h) the transistors, (i) the diodes, and (j) the effective load
angle θ.

17
 Three-phase inverter

• Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by 120

degrees.

• A three-phase inverter with star connected load is

shown below

+Vdc
+
Vdc/2 S1 S3 S5


G R Y B
iR iY iB
+
S4 S6 S2
Vdc/2


ia ib
ZR ZY ZB

N
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (1)

 Six-Step three-phase Voltage Source Inverter

Fig. 1 Three-phase voltage source inverter.

3
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (2)

 Gating signals, switching sequence and line to negative

voltages

Fig. 2 Waveforms of gating signals, switching sequence, line to negative voltages

for six-step voltage source inverter.
4
 I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (3)

 Switching Sequence:
561 (V1)  612 (V2)  123 (V3)  234 (V4)
 345 (V5)  456 (V6)  561 (V1)
where, 561 means that S5, S6 and S1 are switched on

Fig. 3 Six inverter voltage vectors for six-step voltage source inverter.

5
 I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (4)

 Line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)

and line to neutral voltages (Van, Vbn, Vcn)

 Line to line voltages

 Vab = VaN - VbN

 Vbc = VbN - VcN

 Vca = VcN - VaN

 Phase voltages

 Van = 2/3VaN - 1/3VbN - 1/3VcN

 Vbn = -1/3VaN + 2/3VbN - 1/3VcN

 Vcn = -1/3VaN - 1/3VbN + 2/3VcN

Fig. 4 Waveforms of line to neutral (phase) voltages and line to line voltages
for six-step voltage source inverter.
6
Three phase inverter waveforms
 Practice problem
The three-phase inverter has a Y-connected load of R = 5 Ω and L = 23 mH. The inverter
frequency is f0 = 60 Hz and the dc input voltage is Vs = 220 V. (a) Express the instantaneous
line-to-line voltage vab1t2 and line current ia1t2 in a Fourier series. Determine (b) the rms
line voltage VL, (c) the rms phase voltage Vp, (d) the rms line voltage VL1 at the
fundamental frequency, (e) the rms phase voltage at the fundamental frequency Vp1, (f) the
THD, (g) the DF, (h) the HF and DF of the LOH, (i) the load power Po, (j) the average
transistor current IQ1av2, and (k) the rms transistor current IQ(rms).

24
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (5)

 Amplitude of line to line voltages (Vab, Vbc, Vca)

 Fundamental Frequency Component (V ab)1

3 4 Vdc 6
(Vab )1 (rms)   Vdc  0.78Vdc
2  2 

 Harmonic Frequency Components (V ab)h

: amplitudes of harmonics decrease inversely proportional to their harmonic order

0.78
(Vab )h (rms)  Vdc
h

where, h  6n  1 (n  1, 2, 3,.....)

7
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
A. Six-Step VSI (6)

 Characteristics of Six-step VSI

 It is called “six-step inverter” because of the presence of six “steps”
in the line to neutral (phase) voltage waveform

 Harmonics of order three and multiples of three are absent from

both the line to line and the line to neutral voltages
and consequently absent from the currents

 Output amplitude in a three-phase inverter can be controlled

by only change of DC-link voltage (V dc)

8
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (1)

 Objective of PWM
 Control of inverter output voltage

 Reduction of harmonics

 Disadvantages of PWM
 Increase of switching losses due to high PWM frequency

 Reduction of available voltage

 EMI problems due to high-order harmonics

9
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (2)

 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)

Fig. 5 Pulse-width modulation.

10
I. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
B. Pulse-Width Modulated VSI (3)

 Inverter output voltage

 When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2

 When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2

 Control of inverter output voltage

 PWM frequency is the same as the frequency of v tri

 Amplitude is controlled by the peak value of v control

 Fundamental frequency is controlled by the frequency of v control

 Modulation Index (m)

vcontrol peak of (V A0 )1
m   ,
vtri Vdc / 2
where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of VA0
11
II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (1)

 Three-phase inverter

Fig. 6 Three-phase Sine PWM inverter.

12
II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (2)

 Three-phase sine PWM waveforms

v v tri control_A vcontrol_B vcontrol_C

 Frequency of vtri and vcontrol

 Frequency of vtri = fs
VA0

 Frequency of vcontrol = f1

where, fs = PWM frequency

VB0

f1 = Fundamental frequency
VC0

 Inverter output voltage

VAB

 When vcontrol > vtri, VA0 = Vdc/2

VBC

 When vcontrol < vtri, VA0 = -Vdc/2

where, VAB = VA0 – VB0

VCA

VBC = VB0 – VC0

t
VCA = VC0 – VA0
Fig. 7 Waveforms of three-phase sine PWM inverter.

13
II. PWM METHODS
A. Sine PWM (3)

 Amplitude modulation ratio (ma)

peak amplitude of vcontrol peak value of (VA0 )1
 ma   ,
amplitude of vtri Vdc / 2

where, (VA0 )1 : fundamental frequecny component of VA0

 Frequency modulation ratio (mf)

fs
mf  , where, fs  PWM frequency and f1  fundamental frequency
f1
 mf should be an odd integer
 if mf is not an integer, there may exist sunhamonics at output voltage

 if mf is not odd, DC component may exist and even harmonics are present at output voltage

 mf should be a multiple of 3 for three-phase PWM inverter

 An odd multiple of 3 and even harmonics are suppressed

14
 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform
1
M1

1

Vdc
2

0 t0 t1 t 2 t3 t 4 t 5

Vdc

2

• Triangulation method (Natural sampling)

– Amplitudes of the triangular wave (carrier) and
sine wave (modulating) are compared to obtain
PWM waveform. Simple analogue comparator
can be used.

– Basically an analogue method. Its digital

version, known as REGULAR sampling is
widely used in industry.
 PWM types
• Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown on
previous slide)
– Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift,
sensitivity etc.
• Regular sampling
– simplified version of natural sampling that
results in simple digital implementation
• Optimised PWM
– PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.
• Harmonic elimination/minimisation PWM
– PWM waveforms are constructed to eliminate
some undesirable harmonics from the output
waveform spectra.
– Highly mathematical in nature
• Space-vector modulation (SVM)
– A simple technique based on volt-second that is
normally used with three-phase inverter motor-
drive
 Modulation Index, Ratio
Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform
1
M1

1

Vdc
2

0 t0 t1 t 2 t3 t4 t5

Vdc

2

Modulation Index (Modulation Depth)  M I :

Amplitude of the modulating waveform
MI 
Amplitude of the carrier waveform

Modulation Ratio (Frequency Ratio)  M R (  p )

Frequency of the carrier waveform
MR  p 
Frequency of the modulating waveform
 Modulation Index, Ratio

Modulation Index deterrmines the output

voltage fundamental component

If 0  M I  1,
V1  M I Vin
where V1 , Vin are fundamental of the output
voltage and input (DC) voltage, respectively.

Modulation ratio determines the incident (location)
of harmonics in the spectra.

The harmonics are normally located at :

f  kM R  f m 
where f m is the frequency of the modulating signal
and k is an integer (1,2,3...)
 Regular sampling
h( x)  if ( k ( x)  c ( x)  1  if ( k ( x)  c ( x)  1  0) )
1

t1 t 2 Sinusoidal modulating Carrier, vc(t)

waveform, vm(t)

2
t


Regular sampling waveform, vs (t )

t'1 t'2

v pwm t

Regular sampling PWM

Asymmetric and symmetric
regular sampling

T
1 M1 sin  mt
sample
point

t
T 3T 5T 
4 4 4 4

1

Vdc
2 asymmetric
sampling

t
t0 t1 t2 t3
symmetric
sampling
V
 dc
2

Generating of PWM waveform regular sampling

 Bipolar Switching

Modulating Waveform Carrier waveform

1
M1

1

Vdc
2

0 t0 t1 t 2 t3 t4 t5

Vdc

2
 Unipolar switching
1

A Carrier waveform B

(a)

S1

(b)

S3

(c)

V pwm

(d)

Unipolar switching scheme

Bipolar PWM switching: Pulse-
width characterization

 modulating
  carrier
4 waveform waveform

 2

kth
pulse

 2
 1k
 2k

k
 Three-phase harmonics

• For three-phase inverters, there is significant

advantage if MR is chosen to be:

– Odd: All even harmonic will be eliminated

from the pole-switching waveform.
– triplens (multiple of three (e.g. 3,9,15,21, 27..):
All triplens harmonics will be eliminated from
the line-to-line output voltage.

• By observing the waveform, it can be seen that

with odd MR, the line-to-line voltage shape looks
more “sinusoidal”.

• As can be noted from the spectra, the phase voltage

amplitude is 0.8 (normalised). This is because the
modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage amplitude
is square root three of phase voltage due to the
three-phase relationship
 Effect of odd and “triplens”
 2
Vdc
2 VRG

Vdc

2
Vdc
2 VYG

Vdc

2
Vdc
V RY

 Vdc
p  8, M  0.6
Vdc
2 V RG

Vdc

2
Vdc
2 VYG

Vdc

2
Vdc
VRY

 Vdc
p  9, M  0.6
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER
Three phase inverter with RL
load
• It is desirable to have MR as large as possible.
• This will push the harmonic at higher frequencies
on the spectrum. Thus filtering requirement is
reduced.
• Although the voltage THD improvement is not
significant, but the current THD will improve
greatly because the load normally has some current
filtering effect.
• However, higher MR has side effects:
– Higher switching frequency: More losses.
– Pulse width may be too small to be constructed.
“Pulse dropping” may be required.
 Practice problem

finding the value of C filter to eliminate Certain

harmonics

The single-phase full-bridge inverter supplies a load of R =

10 Ω, L = 31.5 mH, and C = 112 μF. The dc input voltage is
Vs = 220 V and the inverter frequency is fo = 60 Hz. The
output voltage has two notches such that the third and fifth
harmonics are eliminated. (a) Determine the expression for
the load current io(t). (b) If an output C filter is used to
eliminate seventh and higher order harmonics, determine the
filter capacitance Ce.

45