Descriptive Research

Meaning
 Manuel and Medel
“Descriptive research describe what it is. It involves description,
recording, analysis, and interpretation of the present nature,
composition or processes of phenomena. The focus is on prevailing
conditions, or how a person, group, or thing behaves or functions in
the present. It often involves some type of comparison and contrast.”

 Aquino
“Descriptive research is fact-finding with adequate interpretation.
The descriptive method is something more and beyond data-gathering…”
Meaning
 Descriptive research is defined by Best in the following way:
“Descriptive research describes and interprets what is. It is
concerned with conditions of relationships that exist; practices that
prevail; beliefs, processes that are going on; effects that are being felt;
or trends that are developing.”

 In other words,
“Descriptive research is the process of gathering, analysing,
classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions, practices,
beliefs, processes, trends, and cause-effect relationships and then
making adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with or
without aid of statistical methods.”
Characteristics
1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a
group of case under study.

2. It gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description of

the general characteristics of the group or case under study.

3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.

4. Study conditions at different periods of time may be made and the

change or progress that took place between the periods may be noted
or evaluated for any value it gives.
Characteristics
5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may be
made to determine their similarities and differences.

6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are not

usually controlled.

7. Descriptive studies, except case studies, are generally cross-

sectional, that is, it studies the different sections belonging to the
same group.

8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes

of verification and comparison.
Value, Importance and Advantages
1. Descriptive research contributes much to the formulation of
principles and generalizations in behavioural sciences.

2. Descriptive research contributes much to the establishment of

standard norms of conduct, behaviour, or performance.

3. Descriptive research reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that

remedial measures may be instituted.

4. Descriptive research makes possible the prediction of the future on

the basis of findings on prevailing conditions, correlations, and on the
basis of reactions of people toward certain issues.
Value, Importance and Advantages
5. Descriptive research gives a better and deeper understanding of a
phenomenon on the basis of an in-depth study of the phenomenon.

6. Descriptive research provides a basis for decision-making.

7. Descriptive research helps fashion many of the tools with which we do

research, such as, instruments for the measurement of many things,
instruments that are employed in all types of quantitative research.
Techniques
 There are three (3) techniques under descriptive method of research
1. The survey – or normative survey, is a fact-finding study with
adequate and accurate interpretation.

2. The case study – is a comprehensive, complete, detailed, and in-

depth study and analysis of an individual, institution, group or
community

3. Content analysis
Differences between survey and case study
Survey Case Study
1. The group surveyed is usually 1. Case study may involve and
large. usually involves one person,
family, small group, or small
community.
2. The number of aspects or 2. Usually all aspects or variables
variables in the life of the group in the life cycle of the case
surveyed is limited. under study are included.
3. Cause-Effect relationships are 3. Finding the cause of certain
not given emphasis. Aim of a phenomena is always a part of a
study may only be to determine case study.
status.
Differences between survey and case study
Survey Case Study
4. Representativeness is important 4. Representativeness is not
and is given emphasis. important. The result of a single
case study do not provide
certainty that the case truly
representative.
5. Curiosity, interest, or just to 5. Abnormalities or undesirable
determine norm or status may traits or conditions usually
initiate a survey initiate a case study.
6. Only conditions or practices 6. Data about the case from birth
present during the survey are or origin or even of the future
considered except in are considered.
comparative studies when
present conditions in the past.
Advantages of Survey over Case study
1. Survey reveals what is typical, average, or normal against which the
behaviour or performance of an individual can be judged or
evaluated.
2. The result of a survey may be used for prediction.
3. Survey makes possible the formulation of generalizations because the
sample has a high degree of representativeness.
4. Survey reveals problems for which timely remedial measures may be
instituted.
5. It is easy to get respondents for the survey.
6. The instruments for gathering data are easy to determine, construct,
validate, and administer.
Disadvantages of Survey approach
1. Lack of manipulation over independent variables.
2. One cannot progressively investigate one aspect after another of the
independent variable to get closer to the real cause.
3. Statistical devices are not always able to separate the effects of
several independent variables when there is multivariable causation,
especially when two independent variables are themselves highly
associated.
4. Survey approach yields a low degree of control or there is no control
at all over extraneous variables.
5. The instrument for gathering data may lack validity, reliability, or
adequacy.
Types of survey technique or approach
1. Total Population Survey – The entire population is involved in the
survey.

2. Sample Survey – Only a sample or portion of the population is

involved in the survey.

3. Social Survey – The investigator researches on the attitudes and

behaviours of different groups of people.

4. School Survey – This is used to gather data for and about schools and
to assess educational achievement and education itself.
Types of survey technique or approach
5. Public Opinion Survey – This is used to gauge the reactions of people
towards certain issues or person.

6. Poll Survey – This is a survey in which the respondents are asked if

they are voting for a certain candidate in an election.

7. Market Survey – This is aimed at finding out what kinds of people

purchase with products, and how packaging, advertising, and
displaying affect buying, prices and so on.

8. Evaluation survey – The research looks back to see what has

accomplished and, with a critical eye, evaluates results whether they
are satisfactory or not, with the end in view of making improvements.
Types of survey technique or approach
9. Comparative Survey – In this survey, the results from two different
groups, techniques, or procedures are compared.

10. Short-term Survey – In this survey, data are collected over a period
of weeks, months, or even years but the period should less than 5
years.

11. Long-term Survey – Any survey conducted for more than 5 years is
along term survey.

12. Longitudinal Survey – This is almost the same as long-term survey.

Types of survey technique or approach
13. Cross-sectional Survey – In this type of survey, several groups in various
stages of involvement are studied simultaneously.

14. Job Analysis Survey – This provides information on the general duties and
responsibilities of workers, their education, training, experiences, salaries,
types of knowledge and skills, and others that help administrators or
managers in setting up training programs and recruitment policies.

15. Community Survey – This provides information on the various aspects of the
community: health, employment, housing, education, economic resources,
delinquency, family, population, other social problems and so on,

16. Correlation Study – This is a study that shows the relationship between 2 or
more variables, that is, how a variable varies one to another
Case Study and Case Work
 Mckee and Robertson
“Case study involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of
a particular individual, group or situation over a period of time .”
 Young
“Comprehensive study of a social unit”
 Good and Scates
“is a method which takes account of all pertinent aspects of one
thing or situation, employing as the unit for study an individual,
institution, community, or any group considered as a unit.”
Case Study and Case Work
 It may be defined as:
“an extensive and intensive investigation of a unit represented,
whether the unit is an individual, family, social group, institution,
community, the aim of which is to identify casual factors to some
abnormality or deficiency and to find and recommend a solution,
treatment, or developmental procedures.”
Case Work
 Case work refers especially to the developmental, adjustment,
remedial, or corrective procedures that appropriately follow diagnosis
of the cause of maladjustment or of favourable development.
Case Method
 Case method has been employed to describe a plan of organizing and
presenting instructional materials in law, medicine, social work, and
even in education, psychology, and sociology, where as a rule, the
case materials used are the product of case study investigation.
Case History
 Case history is a biography obtained by interview and other means,
sometimes collected over the years to enable us to understand the
problems of an individual and to suggest ways of solving them.
Clinical Method
 Clinical Method is defined by Peter as:
“a process by which we collect all available evidences – social,
psychological, educational, biographical, and medical, that promises to
help us understand an individual child.”
Who should be studied?
 Generally, children with some forms of abnormalities are the subject
of case studies.

 Social groups, each taken as a unit, showing some kind of

abnormalities or maladjustments may be the subjects of a case study.
Kinds of information needed in case studies.

1. Identifying data: name, sex, date of birth, age, place of birth,

telephone number if any.
2. Identification and statement of the problems – any symptoms of
complaints about health, school work, family relationships, abnormal
behaviour, work, delinquencies, etc.
3. Health and developmental history – details of birth whether normal
or caesarean; attended by doctor, nurse, midwife in a hospital or at
home; any abnormality at birth or congenital deficiency; etc.
4. Family history – abnormalities among ancestors, parents, and
siblings; health history of family, transmitted tendencies of some
kind of sickness or physical deficiency; education of parents,
brothers and sisters attitudes of members of family; family pressures
on dome do’s and don’ts; number of people in the family; etc.
Kinds of information needed in case studies.

5. Educational history – cannot read, cannot do simple mathematical

computations, low grades, no interest in school work; etc.
6. Social history – church membership, attendance, and involvement;
plays normally with others of his own age; membership in civic
organizations; etc.
7. Economic history – economic status whether low, average, or high;
kind of job and size of income; cannot stay long in job; works
willingly or grudgingly even in doing chores at home; etc.
8. Psychological history – personality traits such as mental ability,
special talents, interests, skills, moods, emotional patterns, desires,
needs, extroversion and introversion, dominance-submission; how
leisure is spent and hobbies; attitudes towards sex and movies and
television shows involving sex; etc.
Data Gathering Instruments
 Almost all data –gathering devices are used in collecting data for a
case study.
 Interview is very important.
 One important tool is Observation.
 Questionnaire is another instrument.
 Psychological tests are also administered to the patient for
information about their problem.
 Anecdotal records are also useful.
 Autobiographies, too, are rich sources of information about the
patient and their problem.
 Other devices such as: checklist, score cards, and rating scales.
Characteristic of a satisfactory case study
1. Continuity – There is a desirable continuity of information as for instance,
that provided by 2 successive psychological examinations at an interval of
a year, and by an elementary record in relation to performance in high
school.
2. Completeness of data – The potential range of information includes
symptoms, examination results, and history.
3. Validity of data – For instance, a doubtful birth should be verified through
the birth registry, and employment record by reference to employers.
4. Confidential recording – Educational workers have something to learn
from medicine with respect to confidential nature of professional records.
5. Scientific synthesis – This is an interpretation of the evidence that is more
than a mere enumeration of data secured.
Social skills of case work
1. Social insight – a complex concept of great importance in meeting
administrative, supervisory, teaching, and organizational problems in
welfare agencies and social services
2. Empathy – social understanding as to how other feel
3. Sociality – positive behaviour of deftness and spontaneity in friendly
relations with others.
4. Communication – the process by which we transmit experience or
share a common experience.
5. Cooperation – acting or working jointly with others
6. Participation – social interaction within a group directed to some
end, or sharing a common experience
Social skills of case work
7. Organization – the process of systematically uniting in a group the
persons who participate and cooperate in working toward a common
end.
8. Social counselling – assisting the client to formulate and analyse
their problem, explore resources, determine a course for action, and
secure needed services.
9. Guidance for creative achievement – to liberate powers of
individuals for their own happiness and for the contributions of social
value.
The cycle of case study and case work
1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon
2. Collection of data relating to the factors or circumstances associated
with the given phenomenon
3. Diagnosis or identification of casual factors as a basis for remedial or
developmental treatment
4. Application of remedial or adjustment measures
5. Subsequent follow-ups to determine the effectiveness of the
corrective or developmental measures applied
Content Analysis
 Content analysis as a research technique deals with documentary
materials that are already existing and available.

 It is defined as:
“content analysis is a research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication.”
Characteristic of Content Analysis
1. Objective – content analysis must be objective. There should be no
bias involved in the selection and classification of content to be
analysed, in its sampling design, and in the interpretation of results.

2. Systematic – content analysis must be systematic and so it must

follow the steps of the scientific method.

3. Quantitative – content analysis of documentary materials is

quantitative because interpretations and conclusions from the
findings have to depend almost entirely on the frequency counts of
the items or aspects studied.
Steps in Content Analysis
1. Recognizing the problem
2. Forming hypothesis
3. Doing library research
4. Designing the study
5. Developing instruments
6. Collecting data
7. Analyzing the data
8. Making conclusions
9. Making recommendations
Applications of Content Analysis of documentary materials

1. Analyzing to determine the educational, political, sociological,

philosophical, psychological and other ideas of great author and
thinkers, based upon their books, essays, poems, diaries, novels,
plays, speeches, and other writings.
2. Analyzing the contents of textbooks and other instructional materials
as basis for curriculum construction and development and as a basis
for the selection of textbooks and other instructional materials for
the different curricular years of the educational ladder.
3. Analyzing the achievements of students in the different subjects to
determine the types of errors they committed as a basis for making
remedial teaching programs and for curriculum development.
Applications of Content Analysis of documentary materials

4. Analyzing the different writings of students such as essays,

compositions, poems, stories, letters, etc. to determine their writing
aptitudes, levels of their vocabulary and spelling skills, as bases for
designing programs for further development.
5. Analyzing school records such as class records, report cards,
enrolment lists, grading sheets, cumulative records, etc. of different
schools and school systems with the end in view of adopting the
common, practical, economical, and useful school records.
6. Analyzing the objectives and practices of different schools and
school systems with the end in view of adopting more valid and
practical objectives and practices to attain the same ends.
Applications of Content Analysis of documentary materials

 Other areas that may be inquired into through content analysis are:
a. Radio and television programs
b. Newspaper reports
c. Readability of books, newspapers, magazines, etc.
d. The presence of certain items in newspapers and magazines such as
crossword puzzles, mazes, comic strips
e. Movie films
f. Art works
g. Many more.