General principles of X-ray production,

X-ray generators and CT

 X-RAYS
• X-rays
  are electromagnetic radiations having
short wavelength and high frequency and the
property to penetrate through the medium
through which they pass .
• Wavelength- 10-0.1 Å
• Frequency -
 Properties of X-rays
• Electromagnetic radiation with energy of each photon
E =hν =hc/λ.=12.4/ λ. ( λ in Å; when E in keV )

• Travels with velocity of light.(2.99x 108 m/s).

• Electrically neutral can not be deflected by electric and
magnetic field.
• Invisible and highly penetrating.
• Ionise the medium through which they pass.
• Cause fluorescence and effect the photographic plate.
 Production Of X-rays
• X Rays are produced by two processes of
interactions of electrons with the target :

 Bremsstrahlung (braking radiation )

 Characteristic X Rays
 Bremsstrahlung Radiations

Effect of impact parameter on energy of bremsstrahlung

spectrum
Bremsstrahlung Spectrum
 CONT……
 Spectrum without filtration follows the kramer’s
equation
I(E)=C x Z x (Emax - E)
Where I(E)=intensity at energy E
Emax = maximum energy of photons emitted
C is constant
Z is atomic number of target.
Characteristics X-rays
Spectrum of X-rays
Angular Distribution Of Radiations
 X-ray tube
Major components are
• Cathode
• Anode
• rotor/stator
• Glass( or metal )envelop
• Tube housing
 Cathode assembly
Consists of a coiled tungsten wire filament to produce
electrons in a process called thermionic emission.

Electrical resistance heats the filament and releases

electrons via THERMIONIC EMISSION .

Tungsten is preferred because :

 its high melting point.
 It can be drawn into thin wire.
 Its little tendency to vaporize.
 Have moderate work function ( 4.5 eV ).
 Focusing cup

• Shapes the lines of

electrical potential to
focus the electron beam
to produce small focal
spot on the anode
Space Charge Effect
 Anode Assembly
The anode is the target part of the tube, located at opposite side
of the cathode supplied with a high positive potential.

 Anode material should have following properties :

 High Z
 High melting point
 High thermal conductivity
 High thermal capacity
METAL Atomic Number M.Pt.(°C) Specific Heat Thermal
Capacity Conductivity
(Cal /kg-°C) (W/m-K)
Platinum 78 1774 0.033 0.17

Tungsten 74 3410 0.033 0.35

Molybednum 42 2625 0.06 0.35

Copper 29 1083 0.09 0.94

Tungsten is most commonly used as target material having all

desired properties .
Molybednum is used as anode material in mammographic X-ray
tubes which provides useful characteristic X-rays for breast
imaging .
 ANODE CONFIGURATION

STATIONARY ANODE ROTATING ANODE

 Stationary Anode
• Immobile tungsten plate embedded in copper stem
• Inclined anode to take advantage of line focus principle
• Larger focal spot , More is geometrical unsharpness
• Heat confined to small area
• Found in dental and small portable radiography units
 Anode Hood
• Some stationary anodes
hooded by cooper and
tungsten shield with copper
in inner shell and tungsten
following it
• Copper stops the scattered
electrons
• Tungsten shields the
unwanted X-rays produced in
the copper
 Rotating Anode
 Anode disk
 Tungsten or alloy of 90% tungsten
and 10% rhenium
 Beveled edge
 Angle vary from 6° to 20°
 Stem
molybdenum
 Rotor
 Stator
 Bearings
metallic lubricants (silver)
 Heat dissipated through vacuum
to tube walls and then to oil bath
 Advantages of rotating anode
• Target area is increased but effective focal spot
remains same
• Spread the heat produced during exposure over large
area of anode providing greater heat loading capacity
• Higher tube currents and shorter exposure times are
possible
• Less geometric unsharpness and movement
unsharpness due to smaller focal spot and less
exposure timings
 Line Focus Principle
 Shortening of the effective focal spot length as viewed down the
central ray
 Effective focal spot length=actual focal spot length x sinθ
 Heel Effect

• Refers to the reduction of

beam intensity towards the
anode side of the X-ray field
• Photons directed towards
anode side experience more
self attenuation then directed
towards cathode side
 Clinical Importance of Heel Effect
• Used for obtaining balanced
densities in radiographs of body
parts of different thickness, i.e.
thicker parts towards cathode

• When FFD is increased, heel

effect is reduced.

• For smaller films, less heel

effect.
 Other features of X-ray tube
• Glass tube is highly evacuated .

• The x ray tube is made of pyrex glass and metal

ceramic for some applications .

• Platinum wire is used for supplying high voltage to the

tube because Pt has same coefficient of thermal
expansion as that of pyrex glass .
X-RAY GENERATORS
 X-ray Generators
 X-ray generators modifies incoming voltage and current to
provide a x-ray tube with the power needed to produce a x-ray
beam of desired peak KVp and current(mA) and duration .
 Divided into two components:
• Control Panel or Console : allows the selections of technique
factors and initiation of radiographic exposures mA , KVp and
time
• Transformer assembly : modify the voltage of incoming ac
signal to increase or decrease voltage in a circuit .
Main components are :
1.Transformer
2.Autotransformer
3. Rectifiers
TRANSFORMER
 CONT…..
Laws of transformer:
1. The voltage in the two circuit is proportional to the
number of turns in two coils.(NP/NS=VP/VS).
2. The product of voltage and current in the two circuits
must be equal (VPIP=VsIs)

Types of transformer
2. “step-up” transformer, o/p voltage increase
3. “step-down” transformer, o/p voltage decrease
 AUTOTRANSFORMER
The autotransformer consists of a
single winding wound on a laminated
soft iron core.
 It acts on the principle of self
induction.
Autotransformer in x-ray generator
has several functions:
Provides voltage for filament
circuit
Provide voltage for primary of H.V.
transformer.
 Provides voltage for subsidiary
circuits.
 RECTIFIERS
• Device that changes alternating current into
pulsating direct current .
• Can be of vacuum tube type or solid state
type.
• Divided into two categories :
1. Half wave rectifiers
2. Full wave rectifiers
 Half Wave Rectifiers
• Conducts only in a
single cycle of A.C.
• Advantage: protect the
X-ray tube from the full
potential of the inverse
cycle.
• Disadvantage: Waste of
power
 Full Wave Rectifiers
 A full wave rectifier conduct the
whole cycle of A.C.
 This is achieved by arranging 4
rectifiers in the high voltage part of
the circuit, so that current to flow in
one direction through tube
regardless of polarity of secondary
side of high tension transformer
• Advantages:
1. High rating of X- ray can be
obtained with full wave than half
wave rectifier.
2. Much higher mA & kV can be used.
 TYPES OF X-RAY GENERATORS

1. Single phase
2. Three phase
3. High frequency
4. Constant potential
Single phase X-Ray generator
 Three Phase X-Ray Generator
• Three single ac line used having a phase difference 120 degree
• 3 maximum and 3 minimum are obtained per cycle.
• 6 pulses obtained after rectification using a full-wave rectifier
• Produce an almost constant potential
 Three phase Transformers

•Consists of three sets of primary

and secondary windings.
•Two types of configurations:
1. Delta
2. Wye (star)
Generally
Primary – delta
Secondary – wye / delta
 Advantages of three phase generators

• Produce a nearly constant potential .

• Reduced ripple factor
 13% -25% for three phase ,six pulse generator
 3% -10% for three phase , twelve pulse generator
• Much higher tube ratings for extremely short
exposures .
HIGH FREQUENCY INVERTOR GENERATORS
• Supplies a constant and nearly ripple free voltage to the x ray tube.
CONSTANT POTENTIAL GENERATOR

• Uses three phase line voltage coupled directly to the

high voltage transformer primary .
• The high voltage thus generated is rectified and
smoothed by a circuit involving rectifiers , capacitors
and triode valves .
• The voltage supplied to the tube is nearly constant ,
with a ripple of less than 2% .
Generator comparison
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION
• COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY is a well accepted imaging modality for
evaluation of human body .
• The term “tomography” is derived from the Greek word tomos
meaning section or slice and graphe meaning drawing .
• Basis of CT was made by Austrian Mathematician J.Radon . He proved
in 1917 that 2D & 3D objects could be reproduced from an infinite set
of all its projections .
• DEFINITION-
CT is a process of creating a cross sectional tomograph plane or slice
of any part of body in which computer is used to make a
mathematical reconstruction of tomograph.
 PRINCIPLE OF CT

• The internal structures of an object can be reconstructed

from multiple projections of that object .
• The density of the tissue passed by the X-ray beam can be
measured from the calculation of the attenuation
coefficients.
• CT imaging involves five
main stages :
1. Scanning phase and data
acquisition system(DAS)
2. Pre-Processing of raw
data
3. Image reconstruction
4. Linear attenuation
coefficient of each pixel is
converted into CT number
5. Display and Recording
 Basic terminologies
• Ray: A single transmission measurement through the
patient made by a single detector at a given moment in
time is called a ray.
• Projection / view: A series of rays that pass through
the patient at the same orientation is called a projection
or view.
• Matrix : A two dimensional array of numbers arranged in
rows and columns
• Pixel (picture element): represents the smallest measurable
part of an image that may be displayed in x, y plane.
• Voxel (volume picture element): addition of z axis
information confers a volumetric quantity to a pixel.
 Scanning Phase and DAS
• A narrow beam of X-ray scans across a patient in synchrony with a
radiation detector on opposite side of the patient .
• The sufficient no. of transmission measurements are taken at
different orientations of X-ray source & detectors .
• Once the detector generates the analog or electrical signal it is
directed to the data acquisition system (DAS).
Function of DAS:-
• Amplifying the electrical signal.

• Conversion of electrical or analog signal to digital signal by analog to

digital converter because the computer does not "understand“
analog signals .
CT GENERATIONS:
1971 – Head scanner (EMI) (first generation)

1974 - Whole body scanner (second generation)

1974 – Third generation scanner

1977 – Fourth generation scanner

1983 – Dynamic spatial reconstructor

1983 – Electron beam CT scanning

1989 – Spiral CT

1998 – Multislice CT

Present – Cone beam CT

 First generation(Rotate/ translate, pencil beam)
• Only 2 x-ray detectors used (two
different slices)
• Tube produced a finely collimated beam
or pencil beam
• Parallel ray geometry
• Translated linearly to acquire 160 rays
across a 24 cm FOV
• Rotated slightly between translations to
acquire 180 projections at 1-degree
intervals
• About 4.5 minutes/scan with 1.5
minutes to reconstruct slice
• By the end of the scan, 28,800
measurements (180 views × 160 rays)
for each slice
ADVANTAGE:
Pencil beam allowed very efficient scatter reduction,
because scatter that was deflected away from pencil ray was
not measured by a detector.

DISADVANTAGE:

•Inefficient use of X-rays.

•Time consuming
2nd generation: rotate/translate, narrow fan
beam
• fan shaped beam.
• multiple detector(as many
as 30).
• Movement of X-ray tube
and detector array are
both linear and rotary.
• Fewer linear movements.
• Rotary steps are larger,
gantry rotates upto 30 ˚ .
 ADVANTAGE:

Reduction in scan time, 15 times faster than the 1st generation system.

DISADVANTAGE:
X-rays that are scattered in the same plane
as the detector can be detected, Scattered
radiation accounts for approximately 5% of
the signal in fan beam.
 Third generation(Rotate/rotate , wide fan beam)

•Rotational motion for both x ray

tube and detectors.

•Multiple detectors (more than 800).

•The detector array is long enough so

that the fan angle encompasses the
entire width of the patient.

• Eliminated the need for

translational motion.
 ADVANTAGE:

By elimination of the translational motion, the scan time is

reduced substantially( shorter than 5 seconds).

DISADVANTAGE:
Ring artifacts :

•It is due to miscalibration of one detector.

•Miscalibrated detector will record incorrect data in every
projection.
•Hence misinformation is reconstructed as a ring in image.
 Fourth generation CT scanner (rotate/stationary)
• Designed to overcome the problem of ring artifacts.
• Detector forms a ring that completely surrounds the
patient.
• X -ray tube rotates in a circle inside the detector ring.
• Stationary detectors.
 5th generation (stationary/stationary)
•Also called ultra fast CT (UFCT) ,Cine-CT systems, electron beam
scanners (EBCT) .
•Developed specifically for cardiac tomographic imaging.
• No conventional X-ray tube.
• A large arc of tungsten
encircles the patient and lies
directly opposite to the
detector ring.
• As high-energy electron beam
strikes the tungsten X-rays are
produced .
• This electron beam is swept
around the semicircular target
so that focal spot moves
around the patient .
• There are no moving parts to
this scanner gantry.
 6th generation: helical
• X-ray tube continuously rotate around the patient while
patient moves through the gantry aperture during scanning to
cover entire volume of tissue.
• Slip ring technology is used. A slip ring is a circular contact
with sliding brushes that allows the gantry to rotate
continuously.
• Use of slip-ring eliminated the
inertial limitations at the end of each
slice and allows shorter scan times.

• A greater volume of the patient may

be scanned during the passage of
contrast media, permitting reduction
in the volume of contrast needed.

• The principal advantage of spiral CT

is its ability to image a larger volume
of tissue in a relatively short time.
 Seventh Generation: Multiple Detector Array

• Better use of X-rays is made by using multiple detector arrays.

• The collimator spacing is wider and therefore more of the X-rays
that are produced by the X-ray tube are used in producing image
data.
• In single detector array scanners, opening up the collimator
increases the slice thickness, this improves the utilization of the X-
ray beam but reduces spatial resolution in the slice thickness.

• In multiple detector arrays, the slice thickness is determined by

the detector size and not by the collimator.

• MDCT allows data acquisition for more (4-64)slices

simultaneously.
SSCT Scanner MSCT Scanner
Cone Beam CT
•Used in dental and extremity
imaging.
•cone-shaped X-ray beam instead
of fan-shaped x-ray beam. 
•The attenuated X-rays are
detected on the opposite side by
an X-ray detector.

•Advantages:
decreased examination time,
Decreased movement artifact,
increased X-ray tube efficiency .

•Disadvantage:
Increased scattered radiation.
 DETECTORS
 Xenon Detectors
• Use high pressure (about 25 atm ) nonradioactive xenon
gas in long thin cells between two metal plates .
• Works similarly as ionization detectors .
.
• Thin ionization plates are highly directional , so must be
positioned in fixed orientation with respect to X-ray source .
 Solid State Detectors
• Scintillator coupled to a photodiode.
• Scintillator used : CdWo4, yttrium and gadolinium ceramics .
• Have better X-ray absorption efficiency .
• Capable of X-ray detection over a wide range of angles .
 Preprocessing Of Raw Data
• After the digital data is calibrated , the logarithm of the
signal is calculated using the relation :

ln(Io/It)=μt

Where
Io is reference data
It is data corresponding to each ray in the detector
t is the patient overall thickness for that ray
μ is total linear attenuation coefficient along that ray
 Reconstruction Algorithms
• Mathematical package for image
reconstruction is the reconstruction
algorithms .
• Some of these reconstruction algorithms are :
1. Backprojection
2. Filtered backprojection
3. Fourier transform
 Backprojection Method
• Backprojection is also known as the summation method or the
linear supposition method.
• Each x-ray transmission path through the body is divided into
equally spaced elements, and each element is assumed to
contribute equally to the total attenuation along the x-ray path.
• By summing the attenuation for each element over all x-ray paths
that intersect the element at different angular orientations, a final
summed attenuation coefficient is determined for each element.
• When this coefficient is combined with the summed coefficients
for all other elements in the anatomic section scanned by the x-ray
beam, a composite image of attenuation coefficients is obtained.
• DISADVANTAGE :- produces blurred images of sharp features in
the object .
 Filtered Backprojection
• Also known as “Convolution Method”.
• A deblurring function is combined (convolved) with the x-ray
transmission data to remove most of the blurring before the data are
backprojected.
• This deblurring function is a filter(also known as Kernel) that
removes the frequency components of the x-ray transmission data
that are responsible for most of the blurring in the composite image.
• A high-frequency convolution filter reduces noise and makes the
image appear “smoother.”
• A low-frequency filter enhances edges and makes the image appear
“sharper.” A low-frequency filter may be referred to as a “high-pass”
filter because it suppresses low frequencies and allows high
frequencies to pass.
 Convolution Filters

Lak :- Lak filter, named for Dr. Lakshminarayanan, increases the

amplitude linearly as a function of frequency also called a ramp filter. It
is a ideal reconstruction filter in the absence of noise.
Shepp-Logan filter :- roll-off occurs at the higher frequencies. This filter
produces an image that is a good compromise between noise and
resolution.
Hamming filter :- it has extreme high frequency roll-off.
 Fourier Transform
• In this approach, the x-ray attenuation pattern at each
angular orientation is separated into frequency
components of various amplitudes .
• From these frequency components, the entire image is
assembled in “frequency space” into a spatially correct
image .
• this image is then reconstructed by an inverse Fourier
transform process.
 CT NUMBER
•• The reconstructed images represent the linear attenuation coefficient
 
map of the scanned object.
• This linear attenuation coefficient value foe each pixel is converted to
a “CT NUMBER“ using relation:

where K=magnification constant

=pixel linear attenuation coefficient
=water linear attenuation coefficient

• If value of K=1000 then CT number is also called Hounsfield Unit .

 REFERENCES
• The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging-
JERROLD T. BUSHBERG
• Medical Imaging Physics -William R. Hendee
• Christensen’s Physics Of Diagnostic Radiology