Water and Ocean Structure

The Water Molecule

To properly describe the ocean we need to have a discussion about
the unusual properties of water. It is these properties that
determine the temperature, salinity and density changes that drive
how the ocean circulates around Earth.

A little bit
of
• Molecule: a group of atoms held together by chemical chemistry…
bonds
• Chemical bonds
• Form when electrons are shared between atoms or moved
from one atom to another
• Water molecule: H20
• Covalent bonds holding two hydrogen atoms and one +
oxygen together charge
• Polar: electrically asymmetrical -
• A positive side and a negative side charge
The Formation of a Water Molecule
This is what makes
it a covalent bond.
What holds water molecules together?
• Hydrogen bonds form when the positive end of one
water molecule bonds to the negative end of another
water molecule

Hydrogen bonds greatly

influence many of the
properties of water.

Check out this short

video that demonstrates
hydrogen bonding.
 What holds water molecules together?
• Cohesion: the ability of water molecules to stick to each
other
• Creates surface tension
• Adhesion: the tendency of water molecules to stick to
other substances
• Both are due to hydrogen bonding

The swimmer below has a very thin layer of The water bug below can sit on the
water covering him as he breaks the surface surface of the water due to cohesion.
because the water sticks to him (adhesion).
Why does water look blue?
Vibration

When molecules vibrate, forces between

hydrogen bonds absorb red light
leaves behind more blue light

water

ice
Water Has Unusual Thermal Characteristics

• Heat: energy produced by random vibrations of

atoms or molecules
• Temperature: an object’s response to input or
removal of heat
• Heat capacity: a measure of the heat (calories)
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a
substance by 1º C
• Water has a very high heat capacity
• When heat is added or removed, water resists changing
temperature.
• This is due to the great strength and large number of
hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
Water Has Unusual Thermal
Characteristics
Substance Heat Capacitya in calories/gram/ºC
Silver 0.06
Granite 0.20
Aluminum 0.22
Alcohol (ethyl) 0.30
Gasoline 0.50
Acetone 0.51
Pure water 1.00
Ammonia (liquid) 1.13 High value

Here are some substances to give you an idea of how water compares in its heat
capacity. Of common substances, only liquid ammonia has a higher heat capacity
than water.
Ever notice this phenomenon on the
beach on a hot sunny day… Heat Capacities
(calories/gram/°C)

The sun is giving its energy to both the sand and the water,
but which material changes its temperature faster?

The one with a lower heat capacity.

Sand = 0.2

HOT!

Seawater = 0.932
Water can gain or lose large amounts of heat with very little change in
temperature. This thermal inertia moderates temperatures worldwide.
Surface Water Moderates Global Temperature
• Dominant weather pattern flows from west to east
• West Coast U.S. versus East Coast U.S.
• San Francisco: weather comes from the more moderated ocean
• Norfolk: weather comes from a more varied continent

The ocean keeps San

Francisco from
having much
temperature
variation even
though it is about
the same latitude as
Norfolk, VA.
Surface Water Moderates Global Temperature
• Thermal inertia
• The tendency of a substance to resist temperature
change with the gain or loss of heat energy
• Over long periods, Earth is in thermal equilibrium
• Heat input (mainly from the sun) = heat outflow to
space
• Heat is distributed around the globe through
atmospheric and oceanic currents
Another important
concept that we
will revisit when we
discuss climate
change

A satellite image
showing sea-
surface temps
 A quick review
On Earth…
solid liquidgas

…water appears in all 3 states of matter.

The Three States of Matter: Gas
The Three States of Matter:
Liquid

Gases and liquids are fluids because they flow easily.

The Three States of Matter: Solid

Resists changes of shape or volume

(does not flow easily)
Most substances become progressively denser
as they cool; their temperature –density
relationships are linear.

For example: liquid mercury (see right)

This is what you would expect. The atoms become more tightly packed as the
material cools down until eventually it is locked in the tightest geometrical order it
can be, the most dense.
Water Becomes Less Dense When It Freezes
An ice crystal has a lattice structure
(see right) determined by the
hydrogen bonds of the water. Water
expands about 9% as the crystal
structure forms.

Since the same number of atoms are taking up

more space, this lowers the density of ice to less
than that of water. This is why ice floats on liquid
water.
 Water’s Temperature Affects Its Density
This graph is from your textbook and shows how the density of water changes when
temperature changes. Steps A to E are outlined, showing the changes as water freezes.

Notice the temperature-density

relationship until about 4°C (A to
B). As temperature decreases,
density increases.

At ~4°C, this relationship reverses

and the density begins to
decrease with a decrease in
temperature (B to C). Moving from A to E as the
temperature changes of the
There is an abrupt decrease in water/ice
density once the ice lattice is
locked into place (D).

This is a very different liquid- solid

transition than the mercury
example I gave you earlier.
This is because of water’s unique density characteristics related to the
fact that it is a polar molecule that forms hydrogen bonds.
Water Is a Powerful Solvent
Water will eventually dissolve nearly any
substance. This is due to the polar nature of
the water molecule.

The charged sides of the

water molecule are attracted
to the positive and negative
components of materials.
Ions are formed when the
Ions charged elements are
separated (dissolved) from the
original material and
Sodium Chloride surrounded by polar water
NaCl molecules.
 Salinity: The total quantity (or concentration) of
dissolved inorganic solids in 1 kg water
Ocean salinity varies from 3.3% to 3.7% by weight
(average = 3.5%). It depends on factors such as
evaporation, precipitation, and freshwater runoff from
continents. This value is not very high. If you take a
look at 1 kg of seawater, the salinity is really just a
small fraction of the total component (34.4 g)
Look at all the ions
that are contained in
seawater. This is why
we can’t drink it!

PSS: Practical
Salinity Scale uses
conductivity
Measured with a
salinometer like
this one
Salinity
Principle of constant proportions: salinity of various samples
of seawater may vary, but the ratio of major salts is constant
• For example, the percentage of Cl ions will always be 55.04%
whether it came from high salinity (Atlantic Ocean) or low salinity
(Arctic Ocean) waters.

Notice how the

salinity varies in
different parts
of the world
ocean.
Take a minute
to think about
why this might
be…
Why do we see variations in salinity around the world?
• Different rates of evaporation and precipitation

We can use the amount of salt in the surface ocean as a tracer for the
global water cycle. As water is evaporated, transported, and
precipitated, salinity will change. Example: A region may have high rates
of evaporation. If the water vapor travels away before it rains out back
into the ocean, this would create conditions of higher salinity.

If you would like

to learn how a
map like this is
created, check
out this link.
How exactly
does this
work?
As water is added
through
As water precipitation
evaporates, (rain), the salinity
salinity decreases at this
increases at this location. The
location. Only salinity ions are
water not changing, but
molecules the addition of
change state extra water
and become dilutes the ions
water vapor. and decreases
The salinity ions salinity.
are left behind.
The ocean is in chemical equilibrium
• The proportion and amounts of dissolved solids remain constant
• Ions are being added to and removed from the ocean at the same
rate
• Residence time is the average length of time an element spends in
the ocean
Constituent Residence Time (years)
Chloride, Cl- 100,000,000
Magnesium, Mg2+ 13,000,000
Calcium, Ca2+ 1,000,000
Silicon, Si 20,000
Water, H2O (ocean) 4,100
Iron (Fe) 200

If constituent minerals remain in ocean water longer than the ocean’s

mixing time, they will become evenly distributed throughout the ocean.

Mixing time of ocean = 1,600 years

Is iron evenly distributed in the ocean? How can you tell?

If constituent minerals remain in ocean water longer than the ocean’s
mixing time, they will become evenly distributed throughout the ocean.

Mixing time of ocean = 1,600 years

Is iron evenly distributed in the ocean? How can you tell?

Constituent Residence Time (years)

Chloride, Cl- 100,000,000
Magnesium, Mg2+ 13,000,000
Calcium, Ca2+ 1,000,000
Silicon, Si 20,000
Water, H2O (ocean) 4,100
Iron (Fe) 200

The residence time of iron is much less than the mixing time of the ocean. This
means that it will be removed before it can fully distribute itself in the ocean.
Chloride would be evenly distributed because it’s residence time is longer than the
mixing time. There is plenty of time for chloride to fully distribute itself in the ocean.
 Gases Dissolve in Seawater
Gases found in seawater
• Nitrogen 48%
• Oxygen 36%
• Vital for many animals
• From photosynthesis and dissolved
from atmosphere
• Carbon dioxide 15%
• Used in photosynthesis
• 60x more in ocean than in
atmosphere
 Gases dissolve in liquids most readily in cold water. We saw
this already when looking at carbonate sediments. Below the
CCD, carbonate sediments dissolve due to the water
containing more CO2.

Cold Cold
This is the oxygen and
carbon dioxide
profile. Notice how it
changes with depth.

Why do we see
what we see?
 This is the oxygen and
carbon dioxide
Photic zone (where sunlight penetrates) profile. Notice how it
changes with depth.

Why do we see
what we see?

Life processes
Photosynthesis uses up
CO2 and adds O2 in the
area of the ocean
where the sun light
penetrates.
CO2 builds up at depth
due to respiration with
no photosynthesis (no
light)
 Acid-Base Balance Mo
Chem re
istry
!
Water can separate to form hydrogen ions (H+)
and hydroxide ions (OH-)

• Acid: a substance that releases a hydrogen ion (H+) in

solution
• Base: a substance that combines with a hydrogen ion (H+) in
solution
• Alkaline solution: a solution that is basic
• Acidity or alkalinity is measured on the pH scale (0-14)
 The pH scale

Acids: below pH 7
Neutral: pH 7
Bases: above pH 7

Notice that seawater is

slightly alkaline (or basic).
pH = 7.8
The ocean is becoming
more acidic

The acidity of the ocean is

becoming increasingly
important as things change
with a changing climate. We
will revisit this at the end of
the semester as well.
Now that we know about some of water’s properties,
let’s examine how this impacts how the ocean
behaves…
The Ocean Is Stratified by
Density
• Density of water
• A function of water’s temperature and salinity
• Cold, salty water is denser than warm, less salty water
• Two samples of water can have the same density at
different combinations of temperature and salinity
 The Ocean Is Stratified by
Density
• Density of water
• A function of water’s temperature and salinity
• Cold, salty water is denser than warm, less salty water
• Two samples of water can have the same density at
different combinations of temperature and salinity

warm, salty
The water masses will
behave similarly
because of the similar
density values even
cold, less salty though other
properties of the water
are different.
The Three Density Zones
• Surface zone: the upper layer of the ocean, containing
the least dense water; 2% of total ocean volume
The Three Density Zones
• Pycnocline: a zone in which density increases with
depth; 18% of all ocean water
The Three Density Zones
• Deep zone: little change in density throughout this layer;
80% of all ocean water
 If the change in
density is mainly
due to a change
in temperature,
then the
pycnocline is
also a
thermocline.

If you plot the density of water against depth, you will see a characteristic
profile:
Not much change in density happens in the surface zone.
There is a significant increase in density throughout the pycnocline.
Slight increase in density in the deep zone.

Overall, density increases with depth.

 If the change in
density is mainly
due to a change
in temperature,
then the
pycnocline is
also a
thermocline.

Sometimes a
change in density
can be due to a
change in salinity.
In this case the
pycnocline is also a
halocline.
Water mass – a body of water
with characteristic temperature
and salinity
Density
Water masses will move
vertically through the water
column until they reach a stable
position along the density
profile.

http://ocp.ldeo.columbia.edu/
The thermocline isn’t the same at all latitudes.

More solar energy is available in the

tropical ocean and the thermocline
is more pronounced.
At polar regions, there is not much
of a temperature difference
between surface and deep waters.

Cross-section view showing temperature

Figure 6-21a p152

Light Does Not Travel Far Through the Ocean
• Light: a form of electromagnetic radiation, or
radiant energy
• Travels as waves through
space, air, and water
• Sunlight does not travel
well in the ocean
• Scattering occurs when light Dark
is bounced between air and
water molecules, dust and
other objects
• Absorption occurs when
light’s electromagnetic
energy is converted to heat
in seawater molecules (or water)
 • Photic zone: thin film of lighted water at the top of the
surface zone
• Aphotic zone: dark water beneath the photic zone
• All of the light energy has been absorbed and converted to heat
• Range of photic zone
depths
40 m – coastal waters
100 m – open ocean
600 m – clearest tropical
waters
These
values
can vary
Most of the ocean
is in complete
darkness!
Water Transmits Blue Light More
Efficiently Than Red Ocean water looks blue because
blue light can travel through water
far enough to be scattered back
through the surface to our eyes.

The energy from the other

wavelengths has been
absorbed.

Energy
absorbed at
shallow depths

Energy
absorbed at
deepest depths
 Sound Travels Much Farther Than Light in
the Ocean Travels faster in
warm surface water

Sound – a form of energy

transmitted by rapid
pressure changes in an
elastic medium

Speed of sound in
seawater is 1500 m/s

(5x faster than in air)

Increases again
due to high
Let’s take a closer look at pressure at
the area of minimum depth
sound velocity…
Refraction Causes Sofar Layers and
Shadow Zones SOFAR layer at
Minimum sound
velocity

Sound waves bend

toward layers of lower
sound velocity and so
tend to stay within the
zone.

Sound transmission is
particularly efficient.
Loud noises made at
this depth can be heard
for thousands of
kilometers! This is
because of refraction.
 Refraction Can Bend the Paths of Light
and Sound through Water

You can also understand refraction by looking at this example. Note how the line of
marchers is bending like the sound waves. The marchers can travel faster on pavement
then they can on sand similar to how sound waves can travel faster in certain water masses.
Sonar Systems
• The principle of active sonar:
The projection and return through water of short pulses of high-
frequency sound to search for objects in the ocean

SOund Navigation And Ranging

We have discussed this already,

but it is possible because of how
sound travels through the water.
Summary
• Polar water molecule: hydrogen bonding
• Unusual thermal characteristics of water: high heat
capacity & is less dense when it freezes
• Water is a powerful solvent: generates salinity
• Density stratification in the ocean
• Light does not travel far in the ocean
• Sound travels much farther than light in the ocean

Check out this video that summarizes how hydrogen bonding determines
many of the unique properties of water
Questions
• What makes up a water molecule?
• How is it bonded together?
• Why is water a polar molecule?
• What properties of water derive from its polar nature?
• Why does water look blue?
• What is heat capacity and how is water unique in this regard?
• How does temperature affect the density of water?
• What is thermal inertia?
• What are the most abundant ions in seawater?
• What are the sources of the ocean’s dissolved solids?
• What is the principle of constant proportions?
• What is the residence time of the ocean?
• How does the residence time compare with the mixing time of the ocean?
Questions continued
• Which dissolves more gas: cold seawater or warm seawater?
• How do concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide vary with ocean depth?
• How is pH expressed? What is value of pH is neutral?
• What names are given to the ocean’s density zones?
• How is a water mass defined?
• How does the ocean’s density stratification limit the vertical movement of
seawater?
• What does a temperature profile look like going from the sea surface to the deep
sea?
• What is the difference between the scattering and absorption of light energy?
• What is the photic zone and how does it vary?
• Why does the ocean appear blue?
• Which moves faster through the ocean: light or sound?
• What is a sofar layer?
• How does sonar work and how is it used?