The Foundations: Logic and

Proofs
Chapter 1, Part II: Predicate Logic

With Question/Answer Animations

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• Summary
Predicate Logic (First-Order Logic (FOL),
Predicate Calculus)
• The Language of Quantifiers
• Logical Equivalences
• Nested Quantifiers
• Translation from Predicate Logic to English
• Translation from English to Predicate Logic

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• Predicates and Quantifiers
Section 1.4

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• Section Summary 1

Predicates
Variables
Quantifiers
• Universal Quantifier
• Existential Quantifier
Negating Quantifiers
• De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
Translating English to Logic
Logic Programming (optional)
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• Propositional Logic Not Enough
If we have:
“All men are mortal.”
“Socrates is a man.”
Does it follow that “Socrates is mortal?”
Can’t be represented in propositional logic.
Need a language that talks about objects, their
properties, and their relations.
Later we’ll see how to draw inferences.
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• Introducing Predicate Logic
Predicate logic uses the following new features:
• Variables: x, y, z
• Predicates: P(x), M(x)
• Quantifiers (to be covered in a few slides):
Propositional functions are a generalization of
propositions.
• They contain variables and a predicate, e.g., P(x)
• Variables can be replaced by elements from their
domain.
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• Propositional Functions
Propositional functions become propositions (and have truth
values) when their variables are each replaced by a value from
the domain (or bound by a quantifier, as we will see later).
The statement P(x) is said to be the value of the propositional
function P at x.
For example, let P(x) denote “x > 0” and the domain be the
integers. Then:
P(-3) is false.
P(0) is false.
P(3) is true.
Often the domain is denoted by U. So in this example U is the
integers.
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• Examples of Propositional Functions
Let “x + y = z” be denoted by R(x, y, z) and U (for all three
variables) be the integers. Find these truth values:
R(2,-1,5)
Solution: F
R(3,4,7)
Solution: T
R(x, 3, z)
Solution: Not a Proposition
Now let “x - y = z” be denoted by Q(x, y, z), with U as the
integers. Find these truth values:
Q(2,-1,3)
Solution: T
Q(3,4,7)
Solution: F
Q(x, 3, z)
Solution: Not a Proposition

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• Compound Expressions
Connectives
  from propositional logic carry over to predicate logic.
If P(x) denotes “x 0,” find these truth values:
P(3) ∨ P(-1) Solution: T
P(3) ∧ P(-1) Solution: F
P(3) → P(-1) Solution: F
P(3) → P(-1)Solution: T
Expressions with variables are not propositions and therefore do
not have truth values. For example,
P(3) ∧ P(y)
P(x) → P(y)
When used with quantifiers (to be introduced next), these
expressions (propositional functions) become propositions.
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• Quantifiers
Charles
Peirce
(1839-1914)

We need quantifiers to express the meaning of English words

including all and some:
• “All men are Mortal.”
• “Some cats do not have fur.”
The two most important quantifiers are:
• Universal Quantifier, “For all,” symbol: 
• Existential Quantifier, “There exists,” symbol: 
We write as in x P(x) and x P(x).
x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for every x in the domain.
x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for some x in the domain.
The quantifiers are said to bind the variable x in these
expressions.
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• Universal Quantifier
x
  P(x) is read as “For all x, P(x)” or “For every x, P(x)”
Examples:
1) If P(x) denotes “x 0” and U is the integers, then x P(x)
is false.
2) If P(x) denotes “x 0” and U is the positive integers,
then x P(x) is true.
3) If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then 
x P(x) is false.

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• Existential Quantifier
x
  P(x) is read as “For some x, P(x)”, or as “There
is an x such that P(x),” or “For at least one x, P(x).”
Examples:
1. If P(x) denotes “x 0” and U is the integers, then x P(x)
is true. It is also true if U is the positive integers.
2. If P(x) denotes “x 0” and U is the positive integers,
then x P(x) is false.
3. If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then
x P(x) is true.

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• Uniqueness Quantifier (optional)
!x
  P(x) means that P(x) is true for one and only one x in the
universe of discourse.
This is commonly expressed in English in the following equivalent
ways:
• “There is a unique x such that P(x).”
• “There is one and only one x such that P(x)”
Examples:
1. If P(x) denotes “x + 1 = 0” and U is the integers, then !x P(x) is true.
2. But if P(x) denotes “x 0,” then !x P(x) is false.
The uniqueness quantifier is not really needed as the restriction
that there is a unique x such that P(x) can be expressed as:
x (P(x) y (P(y) → y =x)

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• Thinking about Quantifiers
When the domain of discourse is finite, we can think of
quantification as looping through the elements of the domain.
To evaluate x P(x) loop through all x in the domain.
• If at every step P(x) is true, then x P(x) is true.
• If at a step P(x) is false, then x P(x) is false and the loop terminates.

To evaluate x P(x) loop through all x in the domain.

• If at some step, P(x) is true, then x P(x) is true and the loop terminates.
• If the loop ends without finding an x for which P(x) is true, then x P(x) is
false.
Even if the domains are infinite, we can still think of the
quantifiers this fashion, but the loops will not terminate in some
cases.
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• Properties of Quantifiers
  truth value of x P(x) and  x P(x) depend on both
The
the propositional function P(x) and on the domain U.
Examples:
1. If U is the positive integers and P(x) is the statement “x 2”,
then x P(x) is true, but  x P(x) is false.
2. If U is the negative integers and P(x) is the statement “x 2”,
then both x P(x) and x P(x) are true.
3. If U consists of 3, 4, and 5, and P(x) is the statement “x 2”,
then both x P(x) and x P(x) are true. But if P(x) is the
statement “x 2”, then both x P(x) and x P(x) are false.

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• Precedence of Quantifiers
The quantifiers  and  have higher precedence than all
the logical operators.
For example,x P(x)∨ Q(x) means (x P(x))∨ Q(x)
x (P(x)∨ Q(x)) means something different.
Unfortunately, often people writex P(x)∨ Q(x) when
they mean x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)).

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• Translating from English to Logic 1

Example
  1: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Every student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, define a propositional
function J(x) denoting “x has taken a course in Java” and
translate asx J(x).
Solution 2: But if U is all people, also define a propositional
function S(x) denoting “x is a student in this class” and translate
asx (S(x)→ J(x)).
x (S(x) J(x)) is not correct. What does it mean?
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• Translating from English to Logic 2

Example
  2: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic: “Some student in this class has taken a
course in Java.”
Solution:
First decide on the domain U.
Solution 1: If U is all students in this class, translate as
x J(x)
Solution 2: But if U is all people, then translate as
x (S(x) J(x))
x (S(x)→ J(x)) is not correct. What does it mean?
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• Returning to the Socrates Example
Introduce the propositional functions Man(x) denoting
“x is a man” and Mortal(x) denoting “x is mortal.”
Specify the domain as all people.
The two premises are: x  Man  x   Mortal  x  

Man  Socrates 

The conclusion is: Mortal  Socrates 

Later we will show how to prove that the conclusion

follows from the premises.
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• Equivalences in Predicate Logic
 
Statements involving predicates and quantifiers
are logically equivalent if and only if they have
the same truth value
• for every predicate substituted into these
statements and
• for every domain of discourse used for the variables
in the expressions.
The notation S T indicates that S and T are
logically equivalent.
Example: x S(x) x S(x)
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• Thinking about Quantifiers as
Conjunctions and Disjunctions
If the domain is finite, a universally quantified proposition is
equivalent to a conjunction of propositions without
quantifiers and an existentially quantified proposition is
equivalent to a disjunction of propositions without quantifiers.
If U consists of the integers 1,2, and 3:

xP  x   P  1  P  2   P  3

xP  x   P  1  P  2   P  3

Even if the domains are infinite, you can still think of the
quantifiers in this fashion, but the equivalent expressions
without quantifiers will be infinitely long.
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• Negating Quantified Expressions 1

Consider
  x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course in Java.”
Here J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java” and
the domain is students in your class.

Negating the original statement gives “It is not the case

that every student in your class has taken Java.” This
implies that “There is a student in your class who has not
taken Java.”
Symbolicallyx J(x) and xJ(x) are equivalent

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• Negating Quantified Expressions 2

Now
  Consider  x J(x)
“There is a student in this class who has taken a course in
Java.”
Where J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java.”
Negating the original statement gives “It is not the
case that there is a student in this class who has
taken Java.” This implies that “Every student in this
class has not taken Java”
Symbolically x J(x) and x J(x) are equivalent

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• De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
The rules for negating quantifiers are:
TABLE 2 De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers.
Negation Equivalent Statement When Is Negation True? When False?

xP  x  x  P  x 
For every x, P(x) is false. There is x for
which P(x) is true.
There is an x for which P P(x) is true for
xP  x  xP  x  (x) is false. every x.

The reasoning in the table shows that:

xP  x   xP  x 

xP  x   xP  x 
These are important. You will use these.
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• Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico” and S(x)
denote “x is a student in this class,” and U be all people.
X  S  X   M  X  

1. “Every student in this class has visited Canada or

Mexico.”
Solution: Add C(x) denoting “x has visited Canada.”

 X  S  X    M  X  VC  X   
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• Some Fun with Translating from
English into Logical Expressions 1

U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}

F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
Translate “Everything is a fleegle”

Solution: x F(x)

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• Some Fun with Translating from
English into Logical Expressions 2

 U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}

F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“Nothing is a snurd.”

Solution: x S(x) What is this equivalent to?

Solution: xS(x)
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• Some Fun with Translating from
English into Logical Expressions 3

U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}

F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“All fleegles are snurds.”
Solution:  X  F  X   S  X  

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• Some Fun with Translating from
English into Logical Expressions 4

U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}

F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“Some fleegles are thingamabobs.”
Solution: X  F  X   T  X  

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• Some Fun with Translating from
English into Logical Expressions 5

U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}

F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“No snurd is a thingamabob.”
Solution: X  S  X   T  X   What is this equivalent to?

Solution: X  S  X   T  X  
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• Some Fun with Translating from
English into Logical Expressions 6

U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}

F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“If any fleegle is a snurd then it is also a
thingamabob.”
Solution:  X   F  X   S  X    T  X  

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• System Specification Example
Predicate logic is used for specifying properties that systems must satisfy.
For example, translate into predicate logic:
• “Every mail message larger than one megabyte will be compressed.”
• “If a user is active, at least one network link will be available.”
Decide on predicates and domains (left implicit here) for the variables:
• Let L(m, y) be “Mail message m is larger than y megabytes.”
• Let C(m) denote “Mail message m will be compressed.”
• Let A(u) represent “User u is active.”
• Let S(n, x) represent “Network link n is state x.
Now we have: m  L  m,1  C  m  
u A  u   n S  n, available 

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 Charles Lutwidge
• Lewis Carroll Example Dodgson (AKA Lewis
Caroll) (1832-1898)

The first two are called premises and the third is called the
conclusion.
1. “All lions are fierce.”
2. “Some lions do not drink coffee.”
3. “Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”
Here is one way to translate these statements to predicate logic.
Let P(x), Q(x), and R(x) be the propositional functions “x is a lion,”
“x is fierce,” and “x drinks coffee,” respectively.
1. X  P X   Q X  
2. X  P  X   R  X  
3. X  Q  X   R  X  
Later we will see how to prove that the conclusion follows from
the premises
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• Some Predicate Calculus Definitions
(optional)
An assertion involving predicates and quantifiers is valid if it is true
• for all domains
• every propositional function substituted for the predicates in the assertion.
Example: xS  x   xS  x 
An assertion involving predicates is satisfiable if it is true
• for some domains
• some propositional functions that can be substituted for the
predicates in the assertion.
Otherwise it is unsatisfiable.
Example: x  F  x   T  x   not valid but satisfiable

Example: x  F  x   F  x   unsatisfiable

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• MorePredicate Calculus Definitions
(optional)
The scope of a quantifier is the part of an
assertion in which variables are bound by the
quantifier.
Example: x  F  x   S  x   x has wide scope

Example: x  F  x    y  S  y   x has narrow scope

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• Logic Programming (optional) 1

Prolog (from Programming in Logic) is a programming language

developed in the 1970s by researchers in artificial intelligence (AI).
Prolog programs include Prolog facts and Prolog rules.
As an example of a set of Prolog facts consider the following:
instructor(chan, math273).
instructor(patel, ee222).
instructor(grossman, cs301).
enrolled(kevin, math273).
enrolled(juana, ee222).
enrolled(juana, cs301).
enrolled(kiko, math273).
enrolled(kiko, cs301).

Here the predicates instructor(p,c) and enrolled(s,c) represent that

professor p is the instructor of course c and that student s is
enrolled in course c.
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• Logic Programming (optional) 2

In Prolog, names beginning with an uppercase

letter are variables.
If we have a predicate teaches(p,s) representing
“professor p teaches student s,” we can write the
rule:
teaches(P,S) :- instructor(P,C), enrolled(S,C).

This Prolog rule can be viewed as equivalent to

the following statement in logic (using our
conventions for logical statements).
p c s  I  p, c   E  s, c    T  p, s 
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• Logic Programming (optional) 3

Prolog programs are loaded into a Prolog interpreter. The

interpreter receives queries and returns answers using the Prolog
program.
For example, using our program, the following query may be given:
?enrolled(kevin,math273).
Prolog produces the response:
yes
Note that the ? is the prompt given by the Prolog interpreter
indicating that it is ready to receive a query.

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• Logic Programming (optional) 4

The query:
?enrolled(X,math273).
produces the response:
X = kevin; The Prolog interpreter tries to find
X = kiko; an instantiation for X. It does so
and returns X = kevin. Then
no the user types the ; indicating a
The query: request for another answer. When
?teaches(X,juana). Prolog is unable to find another
answer it returns no.
produces the response:
X = patel;
X = grossman;
no

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• Logic Programming (optional) 5

The query:
?teaches(chan,X).

produces the response:

X = kevin;

X = kiko;

no

A number of very good Prolog texts are available. Learn Prolog

Now! is one such text with a free online version at
http://www.learnprolognow.org/
There is much more to Prolog and to the entire field of logic
programming.
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• Nested Quantifiers
Section 1.4

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• Section Summary 2

Nested Quantifiers
Order of Quantifiers
Translating from Nested Quantifiers into English
Translating Mathematical Statements into
Statements involving Nested Quantifiers.
Translated English Sentences into Logical
Expressions.
Negating Nested Quantifiers.
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• Nested Quantifiers
Nested quantifiers are often necessary to express the
meaning of sentences in English as well as important
concepts in computer science and mathematics.
Example: “Every real number has an inverse” is
x y(x + y = 0)
where the domains of x and y are the real numbers.
We can also think of nested propositional functions:
x y(x + y = 0) can be viewed as x Q(x) where Q(x) is
y P(x, y) where P(x, y) is (x + y = 0)

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• Thinking of Nested Quantification
Nested Loops
• To see if xyP (x,y) is true, loop through the values of x :
• At each step, loop through the values for y.
• If for some pair of x andy, P(x,y) is false, then x yP(x,y) is false and both the
outer and inner loop terminate.
x y P(x,y) is true if the outer loop ends after stepping through each x.
• To see if x yP(x,y) is true, loop through the values of x:
• At each step, loop through the values for y.
• The inner loop ends when a pair x and y is found such that P(x, y) is true.
• If no y is found such that P(x, y) is true the outer loop terminates as x
yP(x,y) has been shown to be false.
x y P(x,y) is true if the outer loop ends after stepping through each x.
If the domains of the variables are infinite, then this process can
not actually be carried out.
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• Order of Quantifiers
Examples:
1. Let P(x,y) be the statement “x + y = y + x.” Assume
that U is the real numbers. Then x yP(x,y) and
y xP(x,y) have the same truth value.
2. Let Q(x,y) be the statement “x + y = 0.” Assume that U
is the real numbers. Then x yQ(x,y) is true, but
y xQ(x,y) is false.

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• Questions on Order of Quantifiers 1

Example 1: Let U be the real numbers,

Define P(x,y) : x ∙ y = 0
What is the truth value of the following:
1.  x yP ( x, y )
Answer:False
2.  x yP( x, y )
Answer:True
3.  x yP ( x, y )
Answer:True
4.  x yP( x, y )
Answer:True
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• Questions on Order of Quantifiers 2

Example 2: Let U be the real numbers,

Define P(x,y) : x / y = 1
What is the truth value of the following:
1.  x yP ( x, y )
Answer:False
2.  x yP( x, y )
Answer:False
3.  x yP ( x, y )
Answer:False
4.  x yP( x, y )
Answer:True
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• Quantifications of Two Variables

Statement When True? When False

xyP  x, y 
P(x,y) is true for every There is a pair x, y for
pair x,y. which P(x,y) is false.
yxP  x, y 
For every x there is a y There is an x such that
xyP  x, y  for which P(x,y) is true. P(x,y) is false for every y.
There is an x for which For every x there is a y
xyP  x, y  P(x,y) is true for every y. for which P(x,y) is false.

xyP  x, y 
There is a pair x, y for P(x,y) is false for every
which P(x,y) is true. pair x,y
yxP  x, y 

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• Translating Nested Quantifiers into
English
Example 1: Translate the statement
 x C  X   y  C  y  F  X , y  

where C(x) is “x has a computer,” and F(x,y) is “x and y are

friends,” and the domain for both x and y consists of all
students in your school.
Solution: Every student in your school has a computer or has a
friend who has a computer.
Example 2: Translate the statement


xyz  F  x, y   F  x, z    y  z    F  y , z  
Solution: There is a student none of whose friends are also
friends with each other.
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• Translating Mathematical Statements
into Predicate Logic
Example : Translate “The sum of two positive integers is always
positive” into a logical expression.
Solution:
1. Rewrite the statement to make the implied quantifiers and domains
explicit:
“For every two integers, if these integers are both positive, then the
sum of these integers is positive.”
2. Introduce the variables x and y, and specify the domain, to obtain:
“For all positive integers x and y, x + y is positive.”
3. The result is:

xy   x  0    y  0     x  y  0 
where the domain of both variables consists of all integers

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• Translating English into Logical
Expressions Example
Example: Use quantifiers to express the statement
“There is a woman who has taken a flight on every airline
in the world.”
Solution:
1. Let P(w,f) be “w has taken f ” and Q(f,a) be “f is a flight on
a .”
2. The domain of w is all women, the domain of f is all flights,
and the domain of a is all airlines.
3. Then the statement can be expressed as:
waf  P  w, f   Q  f , a  
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• Calculus in Logic (optional)
Example: Use quantifiers to express the definition of the limit of a
real-valued function f(x) of a real variable x at a point a in its
domain.
Solution: Recall the definition of the statement
lim x  a f  x   L

is
  “For every real number ε0, there exists a real number δ0 such
that |f(x) – L|ε whenever 0 |x –a|δ.”
Using quantifiers:
 
òx 0  x  a     f  x  L  ò
Where the domain for the variables ε and δ consists of all positive
real numbers and the domain for x consists of all real numbers.
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• Questions on Translation from English
Choose the obvious predicates and express in predicate logic.
Example 1: “Brothers are siblings.”
Solution: x y (B(x,y) → S(x,y))
Example 2: “Siblinghood is symmetric.”
Solution: x y (S(x,y) → S(y,x))
Example 3: “Everybody loves somebody.”
Solution: x y L(x,y)
Example 4: “There is someone who is loved by everyone.”
Solution: y x L(x,y)
Example 5: “There is someone who loves someone.”
Solution: x y L(x,y)
Example 6: “Everyone loves himself”
Solution: x L(x,x)
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• Negating Nested Quantifiers
Example 1: Recall the logical expression developed three slides back:
waf  P  w, f   Q  f , a  
Part 1: Use quantifiers to express the statement that “There does not exist a woman who has
taken a flight on every airline in the world.”
Solution: waf  P  w, f   Q  f , a  
Part 2: Now use De Morgan’s Laws to move the negation as far inwards as possible.
Solution:a
1. waf  P  w, f   Q  f , a  

2. waf  P  w, f   Q  f , a   by De Morgan’s for 

3. waf  P  w, f   Q  f , a   by De Morgan’s for 

4. waf   P  w, f   Q  f , a   by De Morgan’s for 

5. waf  P  w, f   Q  f , a   by De Morgan’s for ∧.
Part 3: Can you translate the result back into English?
Solution:
“For every woman there is an airline such that for all flights, this woman has not taken
that flight or that flight is not on this airline”
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• Return to Calculus and Logic (Opt)
Example : Recall the logical expression developed in the calculus example three slides
back.
Use quantifiers and predicates to express that lim xa f  x  does not exist.
1. We need to say that for all real numbers L, lim xa f  x   L
2. The result from the previous example can be negated to yield:


x 0  x  a     f  x   L  
3. Now we can repeatedly apply the rules for negating quantified expressions:

x 0  x  a     f  x   L  

 x 0  x  a     f  x   L  
 x  0  x  a     f  x   L  

 x  0  x  a     f  x   L  

 x  0  x  a     f  x   L  

The last step uses the equivalence   p  q   p  q

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
• Calculus in Predicate Logic (optional)
4. Therefore, to say that lim xa f  x  does not exist means
that for all real numbers L, lim xa f  x   L csan be expressed
as:

Lx 0  x  a     f  x   L   
Remember that ε and δ range over all positive real numbers and
x over all real numbers.
5. Translating back into English we have, for every real number
L, there is a real number ε > 0, such that for every real
number δ > 0, there exists a real number x such that
0  x  a   and  f  x   L  

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• Some Questions about Quantifiers
(optional)
Can you switch the order of quantifiers?
• Is this a valid equivalence? xyP  x, y   yxP  x, y 
Solution: Yes! The left and the right side will always have the same truth value. The
order in which x and y are picked does not matter.
• Is this a valid equivalence? xyP  x, y   yxP  x, y 
Solution: No! The left and the right side may have different truth values for some
propositional functions for P. Try “x + y = 0” for P(x,y) with U being the integers. The
order in which the values of x and y are picked does matter.
Can you distribute quantifiers over logical connectives?
• Is this a valid equivalence? x  P  x   Q  x    xP  x   xQ  x 
Solution: Yes! The left and the right side will always have the same truth value no
matter what propositional functions are denoted by P(x) and Q(x).
• Is this a valid equivalence? x  P  x   Q  x    xP  x   xQ  x 
Solution: No! The left and the right side may have different truth values. Pick “x is a
fish” for P(x) and “x has scales” for Q(x) with the domain of discourse being all
animals. Then the left side is false, because there are some fish that do not have
scales. But the right side is true since not all animals are fish.
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