Electric Field:

Electric field is a region of space around a charge or a system of charges

within which other charged particles experience electrostatic forces.
Theoretically, electric field extends upto infinity but practically it is limited to a
certain distance.
Electric Field Strength or Electric Field Intensity or Electric Field:
Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the electrostatic force per
unit positive charge acting on a vanishingly small positive test charge placed
at that point.
+q + q0 -q + q0

F F

q – Source charge, q0 – Test charge, F – Force & E - Field

1 q
Lt F F or E= r
E= or E= r
∆q → 0 ∆q q0 4πε0 2

The test charge is considered to be vanishingly small because its presence

should not alter the configuration of the charge(s) and thus the electric field
which is intended to be measured.
Note:

1. Since q0 is taken positive, the direction of electric field ( E ) is along the

direction of electrostatic force ( F ).

2. Electrostatic force on a negatively charged particle will be opposite to the

direction of electric field.

3. Electric field is a vector quantity whose magnitude and direction are

uniquely determined at every point in the field.

4. SI unit of electric field is newton / coulomb ( N C -1 ).

Electric Field due to a Point Charge:
Y
Force exerted on q0 by q is
1 q q0 F
F= r + q0
4πε0 r2
r P (x,y,z)
1 q q0
or F= r
4πε0 r3 +q
O X
F
Electric field strength is E=
q0 Z
1 q
E (r) = r
4πε0 r 3

E
1 q
or E (r) = r
4πε0 r 2

The electric field due to a point charge has

spherical symmetry.
If q > 0, then the field is radially outwards.
0 r2
If q < 0, then the field is radially inwards.
Electric field in terms of co-ordinates is given by

1 q
E (r) = ( xi + y j + z k )
4πε0 ( x2 + y2 + z2 ) 3/2

F14
Superposition Principle:
The electrostatic force experienced by a - q5
charge due to other charges is the vector + q1
+ q2
sum of electrostatic forces due to these F15
other charges as if they are existing
individually.
F12
F13
F1 = F12 + F13 + F14 + F15 + q4 - q3

N
1 ra - rb
Fa (ra) = ∑ qa qb F12
4πε0 F1
b=1 │ ra - rb │3
b≠a
F15
In the present example, a = 1 and b = 2 to 5. F13
If the force is to be found on 2nd charge, F14
then a = 2 and b = 1 and 3 to 5.
Note:
The interactions must be on the charge which is to be studied due to other
charges.
The charge on which the influence due to other charges is to be found is
assumed to be floating charge and others are rigidly fixed.
For eg. 1st charge (floating) is repelled away by q2 and q4 and attracted towards
q3 and q5.
The interactions between the other charges (among themselves) must be
ignored. i.e. F23, F24, F25, F34, F35 and F45 are ignored.
Superposition principle holds good for electric field also.

Electric Lines of Force:

An electric line of force is an imaginary straight or curved path along which a
unit positive charge is supposed to move when free to do so in an electric
field.
Electric lines of force do not physically exist but they represent real situations.

E
Electric Lines of Force
1. Electric Lines of Force due to a Point Charge:

a) Representation
of electric field
in terms of
field vectors:
The size of the
arrow
represents the
strength of
electric field.
q>0 q<0

b) Representation
of electric field
in terms of
field lines
(Easy way of
drawing)
2. Electric Lines of Force due to a 3. Electric Lines of Force due to a
pair of Equal and Unlike Charges: pair of Equal and Like
(Dipole) Charges:

+q P +q
E
.N

+q
-q

Electric lines of force contract Electric lines of force exert lateral

lengthwise to represent attraction (sideways) pressure to represent
between two unlike charges. repulsion between two like charges.
4. Electric Lines of Force due to a Uniform Field: E
+ -
+ -
Properties of Electric Lines of Force + -
or Field Lines: +1 C -
+
1. The electric lines of force are imaginary lines.
2. A unit positive charge placed in the electric field tends to follow a path
along the field line if it is free to do so.
3. The electric lines of force emanate from a positive charge and terminate on
a negative charge.
4. The tangent to an electric field line at any point
. E
P
gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
5. Two electric lines of force can never cross
each other. If they do, then at the point of
intersection, there will be two tangents. It
means there are two values of the electric field E1
at that point, which is not possible. L EE
S IB
Further, electric field being a vector quantity, O S
TP
E2
there can be only one resultant field at the
given point, represented by one tangent at the NO
given point for the given line of force.
6. Electric lines of force are closer
(crowded) where the electric field
is stronger and the lines spread
out where the electric field is Q
weaker. q

7. Electric lines of force are

perpendicular to the surface of a
positively or negatively charged Q > q
body.

8. Electric lines of force contract lengthwise to represent attraction between

two unlike charges.
9. Electric lines of force exert lateral (sideways) pressure to represent
repulsion between two like charges.
10. The number of lines per unit cross – sectional area perpendicular to the
field lines (i.e. density of lines of force) is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the intensity of electric field in that region.
∆N
α E
∆A
11. Electric lines of force do not pass through a conductor. Hence, the interior
of the conductor is free from the influence of the electric field.

E E
+ -
+ - -
+ Solid or hollow + -
- +
+ conductor - (Electrostatic Shielding)
- +
+ - No Field -
+ -
+
+ -

12. Electric lines of force can pass through an insulator.

Electric Dipole:
Electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a very
small distance.
The electric field produced by a dipole is known as dipole field.
Electric dipole moment is a vector quantity used to measure the strength of an
electric dipole.
p
p = (q x 2l) l -q +q
2l
The magnitude of electric dipole moment is the product of magnitude of either
charge and the distance between the two charges.
The direction is from negative to positive charge.
The SI unit of ‘p’ is ‘coulomb metre (C m)’.

Note:
An ideal dipole is the dipole in which the charge becomes larger and larger
and the separation becomes smaller and smaller.
Electric Field Intensity due to an Electric Dipole:
i) At a point on the axial line:
EP = E B - E A
Resultant electric field intensity
at the point P is A B EA EB
EP = EA + EB
-q O +q P
p
The vectors EA and EB are
l l
collinear and opposite.
x
│EP │ = │EB│ - │EA│
1 2px
1 q │EP │ =
EA = i 4πε0 (x2 – l2)2
4πε0 (x + l)2
q 1 2px
1 EP = i
EB = i 4πε0
4πε0 (x - l)2 (x2 – l2)2

1 q q 2p
│EP │ =
4πε0
[ (x - l) 2
-
(x + l)2
] If l << x, then
EP ≈
4πε0 x3
The direction of electric field intensity
1 2 (q . 2l) x at a point on the axial line due to a
│EP │ = dipole is always along the direction of
4πε0 (x2 – l2)2
the dipole moment.
ii) At a point on the equatorial line:
Resultant electric field intensity EB
at the point Q is
EB EB sin θ
EQ = EA + EB θ
EQ Q EB cos θ θ
The vectors EA and EB are θ Q
EQ
EA EA cos θ θ
acting at an angle 2θ.
q y EA sin θ
1 EA
EA = i
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 ) A θ θ B
-q O +q
1 q p
EB = i
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 )
l l
The vectors EA sin θ and EB sin θ q
2 l
are opposite to each other and EQ =
hence cancel out. 4πε0 ( x2 + l2 ) ( x 2 + l2 ) ½
The vectors EA cos θ and EB cos θ 1 q . 2l
are acting along the same direction EQ =
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 )3/2
and hence add up.
1 p
EQ = EA cos θ + EB cos θ EQ =
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 )3/2
 1 p
EQ = (- i )
4πε0 ( x2 + l2 )3/2

If l << y, then
p
EQ ≈
4πε0 y3

The direction of electric field intensity at a point on the equatorial line due to a
dipole is parallel and opposite to the direction of the dipole moment.

If the observation point is far away or when the dipole is very short, then the
electric field intensity at a point on the axial line is double the electric field
intensity at a point on the equatorial line.

i.e. If l << x and l << y, then EP = 2 EQ

Torque on an Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field:
The forces of magnitude pE act
opposite to each other and hence net
+q
force acting on the dipole due to
2l qE
external uniform electric field is zero.
So, there is no translational motion of p
qE θ
the dipole. -q
E
However the forces are along different
lines of action and constitute a couple.
Hence the dipole will rotate and p
experience torque.
θ
E
Torque = Electric Force x distance
t = q E (2l sin θ) t
= p E sin θ
Case i: If θ = 0°, then t = 0.
t = pxE
Case ii: If θ = 90°, then t = pE
Direction of Torque is perpendicular
and into the plane containing p and E.
(maximum value).
SI unit of torque is newton metre (Nm).
Case iii: If θ = 180°, then t = 0.
Work done on an Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field:
When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, it experiences
torque and tends to allign in such a way to attain stable equilibrium.
dW = tdθ
qE
= p E sin θ dθ dθ + q q E
2l θ1 θ2
-q
θ2
qE
W = ∫ p E sin θ dθ E
θ1 qE

W = p E (cosθ1 - cos θ2)

If Potential Energy is arbitrarily taken zero when the dipole is at 90°,
then P.E in rotating the dipole and inclining it at an angle θ is
Potential Energy U = - p E cos θ

Note: Potential Energy can be taken zero arbitrarily at any position of the
dipole.
Case i: If θ = 0°, then U = - pE (Stable Equilibrium)
Case ii: If θ = 90°, then U = 0
Case iii: If θ = 180°, then U = pE (Unstable Equilibrium)
END
 Area Vector: n
Small area of a surface can be represented by a vector. dS

dS = dS n
dS
Electric Flux: S
Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the total number of electric
lines of force that normally pass through that surface.
Electric flux dΦ through a small area dS dS
element dS due to an electric field E at an 90°
θ
angle θ with dS is
dS
dΦ = E . dS = E dS cos θ
dS
Total electric flux Φ over the whole θ E
surface S due to an electric field E is S

Φ= E . dS = E S cos θ = E . S
S
Electric flux is a scalar quantity. But it is a θ
property of vector field. dS

SI unit of electric flux is N m2 C-1 or J m C -1.

Gauss’s Theorem:
The surface integral of the electric field intensity over any closed hypothetical
surface (called Gaussian surface) in free space is equal to 1 / ε0 times the net
charge enclosed within the surface.
1 n
ΦE = E . dS = ε ∑ qi
0 i=1
S
Proof of Gauss’s Theorem for Spherically Symmetric Surfaces:
1 q
dΦ = E . dS = r . dS n E
4πε0 r 2

1 q dS
dΦ = r . n r dS
4πε0 r2
O•
+q r
Here, r . n = 1 x 1 cos 0° = 1

1 q dS
dΦ =
4πε0 r2
1 q 1 q q
ΦE = dΦ = dS = 4π r2 =
4πε0 r2 4πε0 r2 ε0
S S
Proof of Gauss’s Theorem for a Closed Surface of any Shape:

1 q E
dΦ = E . dS = r . dS n
4πε0 r2
r

1 q dS θ n
dΦ = r . n dS
4πε0 r2
r
Here, r . n = 1 x 1 cos θ dΩ
= cos θ
+q•

q dS cos θ
dΦ =
4πε0 r2

q q q
ΦE = dΦ = dΩ = 4π =
4πε0 4πε0 ε0
S S
Applications of Gauss’s Theorem:
1. Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinitely Long Straight Charged
Wire:
E
dS

C
r

-∞ B A +∞
dS dS

Gaussian surface is a
From Gauss’s law,
l closed surface,
q E E
around a charge
ΦE = E . dS = ε
0
distribution, such that
S the electric field
intensity has a single
E . dS = E . dS + E . dS + E . dS fixed value at every
point on the surface.
S A B C

E . dS = E dS cos 90° + E dS cos 90° + E dS cos 0° = E dS = E x 2 π r l

S A B C C
 q λl
= ε0 (where λ is the liner charge density)
ε0

λl
Ex2πrl= ε0

1 λ
or E=
2 πε0 r

or 1 2λ
E=
4 πε0 r
1 2λ
In vector form, E (r) = r
4 πε0 r

The direction of the electric field intensity is radially outward from the positive
line charge. For negative line charge, it will be radially inward.

Note:
The electric field intensity is independent of the size of the Gaussian surface
constructed. It depends only on the distance of point of consideration. i.e. the
Gaussian surface should contain the point of consideration.
2. Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinitely Long, Thin Plane Sheet of
Charge:
σ

dS

l
E

E dS r C E
A
B dS

From Gauss’s law,

q TIP:
ΦE = E . dS = ε
0 The field lines remain
S
straight, parallel and
uniformly spaced.
E . dS = E . dS + E . dS + E . dS
S A B C

E . dS = E dS cos 0° + E dS cos 0° + E dS cos 90° =2E dS = 2E x π r2

S A B C
 q σ π r2
= (where σ is the surface charge density)
ε0 ε0

σ π r2
2Exπr = 2
ε0

σ σ
or E= In vector form,
2 ε0 E (l) = l
2 ε0

The direction of the electric field intensity is normal to the plane and away
from the positive charge distribution. For negative charge distribution, it will
be towards the plane.
Note:
The electric field intensity is independent of the size of the Gaussian surface
constructed. It neither depends on the distance of point of consideration nor
the radius of the cylindrical surface.
If the plane sheet is thick, then the charge distribution will be available on
both the sides. So, the charge enclosed within the Gaussian surface will be
twice as before. Therefore, the field will be twice.
σ
E=
ε0
 3. Electric Field Intensity due to Two Parallel, Infinitely Long, Thin
Plane Sheet of Charge:
Case 1: σ1 > σ2
σ1 σ2

E1 E1 E1

Region I Region II Region III

E E E
( σ1 > σ2 )

E2 E2 E2

E = E 1 + E2 E = E 1 - E2 E = E 1 + E2
σ1 + σ2 σ1 - σ2 σ1 + σ2
E= E= E=
2 ε0 2 ε0 2 ε0
Case 2: + σ1 & - σ2

σ1 σ2

E1 E1 E1

Region I Region II Region III

E E E
( σ1 > σ2 )
( σ1 > σ2 )

E2 E2 E2

E = E1 - E 2 E = E 1 + E2 E = E1 - E 2
σ1 - σ 2 σ1 + σ2 σ1 - σ2
E= E= E=
2 ε0 2 ε0 2 ε0
Case 3: +σ&-σ

σ1 σ2

E1 E1 E1

Region I Region II Region III

E=0 E≠0 E=0

E2 E2 E2

E = E1 - E 2 E = E 1 + E2 E = E1 - E2
σ1 - σ 2 σ1 + σ2 σ σ1 - σ2
E= =0 E= = E= =0
2 ε0 2 ε0 ε0 2 ε0
4. Electric Field Intensity due to a Uniformed Charged This Spherical
Shell:
E
i) At a point P outside the shell: dS
r
From Gauss’s law, •P
q
ΦE = E . dS = ε
0
S q O• R
Since E and dS are in the same direction,
HOLLOW
q
ΦE = E dS = ε
0
S
q
or ΦE = E dS = ……… Gaussian Surface
ε0
S
q q Electric field due to a uniformly
E x 4π r = 2
or E= charged thin spherical shell at
ε0 4πε0 r2
a point outside the shell is such
as if the whole charge were
Since q = σ x 4π R2, σ R2
E= concentrated at the centre of
ε0 r2 the shell.
ii) At a point A on the surface of the shell:
From Gauss’s law, E
q dS
ΦE = E . dS = ε
S
0
A
•
Since E and dS are in the same direction,
q O• R
q
ΦE = E dS = ε
0
HOLLOW
S
q
or ΦE = E dS =
ε0
S
q q
E x 4π R = 2
or E=
ε0 4πε0 R2

Electric field due to a uniformly

Since q = σ x 4π R2, σ charged thin spherical shell at
E=
ε0 a point on the surface of the
shell is maximum.
iii) At a point B inside the shell:
From Gauss’s law, E
dS
q
ΦE = E . dS = ε B
0
S •
q O• R
Since E and dS are in the same direction,
r’
q
ΦE = HOLLOW
E dS = ε
0
S
q
or ΦE = E dS = ε0 E
S
q 0 Emax
E x 4π r’ = 2
or E=
ε0 4πε0 r’2

(since q = 0 inside the Gaussian surface)

E=0
O
R r
This property E = 0 inside a cavity is
used for electrostatic shielding.
END