Computer

Programming
Lecture 8
Introduction to MATLAB®

Mr. Abbas kh. Ibrahim

MATLAB®

An Overview of MATLAB®
 Vectors: To create a row vector, separate the
elements by semicolons. Use square brackets.
For example,

>>p = [3,7,9]
p =
3 7 9

You can create a column vector by using the

transpose notation (').

>>p = [3,7,9]'
p =
3
7
9
2-2
 You can also create a column vector by separating the
elements by semicolons. For example,

>>g = [3;7;9]
g =
3
7
9

2-3
 You can create vectors by ''appending'' one vector to
another.

For example, to create the row vector u whose first three

columns contain the values of r = [2,4,20] and
whose fourth, fifth, and sixth columns contain the values
of w = [9,-6,3], you type u = [r,w]. The result is
the vector u = [2,4,20,9,-6,3].

2-4
 The colon operator (:) easily generates a large vector of
regularly spaced elements. Parentheses are not needed
but can be used for clarity. Do not use square brackets.

Typing

>>x = m:q:n

or

>>x = (m:q:n)

creates a vector x of values with a spacing q. The first

value is m. The last value is n if m - n is an integer
multiple of q. If not, the last value is less than n.

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 For example, typing x = 0:2:8 creates the
vector x = [0,2,4,6,8], whereas typing x =
0:2:7 creates the vector x = [0,2,4,6].

To create a row vector z consisting of the values

from 5 to 8 in steps of 0.1, type z = 5:0.1:8.

If the increment q is omitted, it is presumed to be

1. Thus typing y = -3:2 produces the vector y
= [-3,-2,-1,0,1,2].

2-6
 The linspace command also creates a linearly
spaced row vector, but instead you specify the number
of values rather than the increment.

The syntax is linspace(x1,x2,n), where x1 and x2

are the lower and upper limits and n is the number of
points.

For example, linspace(5,8,31) is equivalent to

5:0.1:8.

If n is omitted, the spacing is 1.

2-7
 The logspace command creates an array of
logarithmically spaced elements.

Its syntax is logspace(a,b,n), where n is

the number of points between 10a and 10b.

For example, x = logspace(-1,1,4)

produces the vector x = [0.1000,
0.4642, 2.1544, 10.000].

If n is omitted, the number of points defaults to

50.

2-8
 Magnitude, Length, and Absolute Value of a Vector
 
Keep in mind the precise meaning of these terms when
using MATLAB.

The length command gives the number of elements in

the vector.

The magnitude of a vector x having elements x1, x2, …,

xn is a scalar, given by Ö(x12 + x22 + … + xn2), and is the
same as the vector's geometric length.

The absolute value of a vector x is a vector whose

elements are the absolute values of the elements of x.

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 For example, if x = [2,-4,5],

 its length is 3; (computed from length(x))

 its magnitude is [22 + (–4)2 + 52] = 6.7082;

(computed from sqrt(x’*x))

 its absolute value is [2,4,5] (computed

from abs(x)).

2-10
 Matrices
A matrix has multiple rows and columns. For
example, the matrix

2 4 10
M = 16 3 7
8 4 9
3 12 15

has four rows and three columns.

Vectors are special cases of matrices having
one row or one column.

2-11
 Creating Matrices
 
If the matrix is small you can type it row by row, separating
the elements in a given row with spaces or commas and
separating the rows with semicolons. For example, typing

>>A = [2,4,10;16,3,7];

creates the following matrix:

2 4 10
A=
16 3 7

Remember, spaces or commas separate elements in

different columns, whereas semicolons separate elements
in different rows.
2-12
 Creating Matrices from Vectors

Suppose a = [1,3,5] and b = [7,9,11] (row

vectors). Note the difference between the results given
by [a b] and [a;b] in the following session:

>>c = [a b];
c =
1 3 5 7 9 11
>>D = [a;b]
D =
1 3 5
7 9 11

2-13
 You need not use symbols to create a new array.
For example, you can type
>> D = [[1,3,5];[7,9,11]];

Array Addressing
The colon operator selects individual elements, rows,
columns, or ''subarrays'' of arrays. Here are some
examples: 
■ v(:) represents all the row or column elements of
the vector v.
■ v(2:5) represents the second through fifth elements;
that is v(2), v(3), v(4), v(5).

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 Array Addressing, continued

• A(:,3) denotes all the elements in the third column

of the matrix A.
• A(:,2:5) denotes all the elements in the second
through fifth columns of A.
• A(2:3,1:3) denotes all the elements in the second
and third rows that are also in the first through third
columns. 
• v = A(:) creates a vector v consisting of all the
columns of A stacked from first to last.
• A(end,:) denotes the last row in A, and A(:,end)
denotes the last column.

2-15
 You can use array indices to extract a smaller array from
another array. For example, if you first create the array B

2 4 10 13
B = 16 3 7 18
8 4 9 25
3 12 15 17
then type C = B(2:3,1:3), you can produce the
following array:

C= 16 3 7
8 4 9

2-16
 Additional Array Functions

length(A) Computes either the number of

elements of A if A is a vector or
the largest value of m or n if A is
an m × n matrix.

2-17
 Additional Array Functions

max(A) Returns the algebraically

largest element in A if A
is a vector.
Returns a row vector
containing the largest
elements in each column
if A is a matrix.
If any of the elements are
complex, max(A) returns
the elements that have
the largest magnitudes.

2-18
 Additional Array Functions

[x,k] = Similar to max(A) but

max(A) stores the maximum
values in the row vector x
and their indices in the
row vector k.
min(A)
and Like max but returns
minimum values.
[x,k] =
min(A)

2-19
 Additional Array Functions

size(A) Returns a row vector [m n]

containing the sizes of the
m x n array A.
sort(A) Sorts each column of the
array A in ascending order and returns
an array the same size as A.
sum(A) Sums the elements in each
column of the array A and
returns a row vector
containing the sums.

2-20
 The function size(A) returns a row vector [m n]
containing the sizes of the m × n array A. The
length(A) function computes either the number of
elements of A if A is a vector or the largest value of m or
n if A is an m × n matrix.

For example, if
6 2
A = –10 –5
3 0

then max(A) returns the vector [6,2]; min(A)returns

the vector [-10, -5]; size(A) returns [3, 2]; and
length(A) returns 3.

2-21
 The Workspace Browser.

2-22
 The Variable Editor.

2-23
 Multidimensional Arrays

Consist of two-dimensional matrices “layered” to produce a third dimension. Each

“layer” is called a page.

cat(n,A,B,C, .. Creates a new array

.) by concatenating
the arrays A,B,C,
and so on along
the dimension n.

2-24
 Array Addition and Subtraction
For example:
6 –2 + 9 8 = 15 6 (2.3-1)
10 3 –12 14 –2 17

Array subtraction is performed in a similar way.

The addition shown in equation 2.3–1 is performed in
MATLAB as follows:

>>A = [6,-2;10,3];
>>B = [9,8;-12,14]
>>A+B
ans =
15 6
-2 17
2-25
 Multiplication: Multiplying a matrix A by a scalar w
produces a matrix whose elements are the elements of
A multiplied by w. For example:

2 9 6 27
3 5 =
–7 15 –21

This multiplication is performed in MATLAB as follows:

>>A = [2, 9; 5,-7];

>>3*A
ans =
6 27
15 -21

2-26
 Multiplication of an array by a scalar is easily defined
and easily carried out.

However, multiplication of two arrays is not so

straightforward.

MATLAB uses two definitions of multiplication:

(1) array multiplication (also called element-by-element

multiplication), and

(2) matrix multiplication.

2-27
 Division and exponentiation must also be
carefully defined when you are dealing
with operations between two arrays.

MATLAB has two forms of arithmetic

operations on arrays. Next we introduce
one form, called array operations, which
are also called element-by-element
operations. Then we will introduce matrix
operations. Each form has its own
applications.
Division and exponentiation must also be
carefully defined when you are dealing
with operations between two arrays.

2-28
Element-by-element operations:

Symbol Operation Form Examples

+ Scalar-array addition A + b [6,3]+2=[8,5]

- Scalar-array subtraction A – b [8,3]-5=[3,-2]

+ Array addition A + B [6,5]+[4,8]=[10,13]

- Array subtraction A – B [6,5]-[4,8]=[2,-3]

.* Array multiplication A.*B [3,5].*[4,8]=[12,40]

./ Array right division A./B [2,5]./[4,8]=[2/4,5/8]

.\ Array left division A.\B [2,5].\[4,8]=[2\4,5\8]

.^ Array exponentiation A.^B [3,5].^2=[3^2,5^2]

2.^[3,5]=[2^3,2^5]

[3,5].^[2,4]=[3^2,5^4]

2-29
 Array or Element-by-element multiplication is defined only
for arrays having the same size. The definition of the
product x.*y, where x and y each have n elements, is

x.*y = [x(1)y(1), x(2)y(2), ... , x(n)y(n)]

if x and y are row vectors. For example, if

x = [2, 4, – 5], y = [– 7, 3, – 8] (2.3–

4)

then z = x.*y gives

z = [2(– 7), 4 (3), –5(–8)] = [–14, 12, 40]

2-30
 If x and y are column vectors, the result of x.*y is a
column vector. For example z = (x’).*(y’) gives

2(–7) –14
z = 4(3) = 12
–5(–8) 40

Note that x’ is a column vector with size 3 × 1 and thus

does not have the same size as y, whose size is 1 × 3.

Thus for the vectors x and y the operations x’.*y and

y.*x’ are not defined in MATLAB and will generate an
error message.

2-31
 The array operations are performed between the
elements in corresponding locations in the arrays. For
example, the array multiplication operation A.*B results
in a matrix C that has the same size as A and B and has
the elements ci j = ai j bi j . For example, if

A= 11 5 B = –7 8
–9 4 6 2

then C = A.*B gives this result:

C = 11(–7) 5(8) = –77 40

–9(6) 4(2) –54 8

2-32
 The built-in MATLAB functions such as sqrt(x) and
exp(x) automatically operate on array arguments to
produce an array result the same size as the array
argument x.

Thus these functions are said to be vectorized functions.

For example, in the following session the result y has

the same size as the argument x.

>>x = [4, 16, 25];

>>y = sqrt(x)
y =
2 4 5

2-33
 However, when multiplying or dividing these
functions, or when raising them to a power, you
must use element-by-element operations if the
arguments are arrays.

For example, to compute z = (ey sin x) cos2x,

you must type

z = exp(y).*sin(x).*(cos(x)).^2.

You will get an error message if the size of x is

not the same as the size of y. The result z will
have the same size as x and y.

2-34
 Array Division

The definition of array division is similar to the definition

of array multiplication except that the elements of one
array are divided by the elements of the other array.
Both arrays must have the same size. The symbol for
array right division is ./. For example, if

x = [8, 12, 15] y = [–2, 6, 5]

then z = x./y gives

z = [8/(–2), 12/6, 15/5] = [–4, 2, 3]

2-35
 Also, if

A= 24 20 B = –4 5
–9 4 3 2

then C = A./B gives

C = 24/(–4) 20/5 = –6 4
–9/3 4/2 –3 2

2-36
 Array Exponentiation

MATLAB enables us not only to raise arrays to powers

but also to raise scalars and arrays to array powers.

To perform exponentiation on an element-by-element

basis, we must use the .^ symbol.

For example, if x = [3, 5, 8], then typing x.^3

produces the array [33, 53, 83] = [27, 125, 512].

2-37
 We can raise a scalar to an array power. For example, if
p = [2, 4, 5], then typing 3.^p produces the array
[32, 34, 35] = [9, 81, 243].

Remember that .^ is a single symbol. The dot in 3.^p

is not a decimal point associated with the number 3. The
following operations, with the value of p given here, are
equivalent and give the correct answer:

3.^p
3.0.^p
3..^p
(3).^p
3.^[2,4,5]

2-38
 Matrix-Matrix Multiplication

In the product of two matrices AB, the number of

columns in A must equal the number of rows in B. The
row-column multiplications form column vectors, and
these column vectors form the matrix result. The
product AB has the same number of rows as A and the
same number of columns as B. For example,
6 –2 9 8 (6)(9) + (– 2)(– 5) (6)(8) + (– 2)(12)
10 3 = (10)(9) + (3)(– 5) (10)(8) + (3)(12)
–5 12
4 7 (4)(9) + (7)(– 5) (4)(8) + (7)(12)

64 24
= 75 116
1 116

2-39
 Use the operator * to perform matrix multiplication in
MATLAB. The following MATLAB session shows how to
perform the matrix multiplication shown in (2.4–4).

>>A = [6,-2;10,3;4,7];
>>B = [9,8;-5,12];
>>A*B
ans =
64 24
75 116
1 116

2-40
 Matrix multiplication does not have the commutative
property; that is, in general, AB ¹ BA. A simple
example will demonstrate this fact:

AB = 6 –2 9 8 = 78 20
10 3 –12 14 54 122

whereas

BA = 9 8 6 –2 = 134 6
–12 14 10 3 68 66

Reversing the order of matrix multiplication is a

common and easily made mistake.

2-41
 Special Matrices

Two exceptions to the noncommutative property are the

null or zero matrix, denoted by 0 and the identity, or
unity, matrix, denoted by I.

The null matrix contains all zeros and is not the same
as the empty matrix [ ], which has no elements.

These matrices have the following properties:

0A = A0 = 0

IA = AI = A

2-42
 The identity matrix is a square matrix whose diagonal
elements are all equal to one, with the remaining
elements equal to zero.

For example, the 2 × 2 identity matrix is

I= 1 0
0 1

The functions eye(n) and eye(size(A)) create an

n × n identity matrix and an identity matrix the same
size as the matrix A.

2-43
 Sometimes we want to initialize a matrix to have all zero
elements. The zeros command creates a matrix of all
zeros.

Typing zeros(n) creates an n × n matrix of zeros,

whereas typing zeros(m,n) creates an m × n matrix of
zeros.

Typing zeros(size(A)) creates a matrix of all zeros

having the same dimension as the matrix A. This type of
matrix can be useful for applications in which we do not
know the required dimension ahead of time.

The syntax of the ones command is the same, except

that it creates arrays filled with ones.
2-44
 Matrix Left Division and Linear Algebraic Equations
6x + 12y + 4z = 70
7x – 2y + 3z = 5
2x + 8y – 9z = 64
>>A = [6,12,4;7,-2,3;2,8,-9];
>>B = [70;5;64];
>>Solution = A\B
Solution =
3
5
-2
The solution is x = 3, y = 5, and z = –2.

2-45
 Polynomial Coefficients

The function poly(r)computes the coefficients of the

polynomial whose roots are specified by the vector r.
The result is a row vector that contains the polynomial’s
coefficients arranged in descending order of power.
For example,

>>c = poly([-2, -5])

c =
1 7 10

2-46
 Polynomial Roots

The function roots(a)computes the roots of a polynomial

specified by the coefficient array a. The result is a
column vector that contains the polynomial’s roots.

For example,

>>r = roots([2, 14, 20])

r =
-2
-5

2-47
 Polynomial Multiplication and Division
The function conv(a,b) computes the product of the two
polynomials described by the coefficient arrays a and b.
The two polynomials need not be the same degree. The
result is the coefficient array of the product polynomial.

The function [q,r] = deconv(num,den) computes the

result of dividing a numerator polynomial, whose
coefficient array is num, by a denominator polynomial
represented by the coefficient array den. The quotient
polynomial is given by the coefficient array q, and the
remainder polynomial is given by the coefficient array r.

2-48
 Polynomial Multiplication and Division: Examples

>>a = [9,-5,3,7];
>>b = [6,-1,2];
>>product = conv(a,b)
product =
54 -39 41 29 -1 14
>>[quotient, remainder] = deconv(a,b)
quotient =
1.5 -0.5833
remainder =
0 0 -0.5833 8.1667

More? See pages 96-97.

2-49
 Plotting Polynomials

The function polyval(a,x)evaluates a polynomial at

specified values of its independent variable x, which can
be a matrix or a vector. The polynomial’s coefficients of
descending powers are stored in the array a. The result
is the same size as x.

2-50
 Example of Plotting a Polynomial

To plot the polynomial f (x) = 9x3 – 5x2 + 3x + 7

for -2 ≤ x ≤ 5, you type

>>a = [9,-5,3,7];
>>x = -2:0.01:5;
>>f = polyval(a,x);
>>plot(x,f),xlabel(’x’),ylabel(’f(x)’)

2-51
Cell array functions

Function Description

C = cell(n) Creates an n × n cell array C of empty matrices.

C = cell(n,m) Creates an n × m cell array C of empty matrices.

celldisp(C) Displays the contents of cell array C.

cellplot(C) Displays a graphical representation of the cell array C.

2-52
Arrangement of data in the structure array student.

2-53
Structure functions

Function Description
names = fieldnames(S) Returns the field names
associated with the
structure array S as names,
a cell array of strings.

isfield(S,’field’) Returns 1 if ’field’ is the

name of a field in the
structure array S, and 0
otherwise.
isstruct(S) Returns 1 if the array S is a
structure and 0 otherwise.

2-54
 Structure functions

Removes the field ’field’ from the structure array S.

S = rmfield(S,’field’)

Creates a structure array with the fields ’f1’, ’f2’, . . .

S having the values ’v1’, ’v2’, . . . .
= struct(’f1’,’v1’,
’f2’,’v2’,...)

2-55
Questions ?