Getting Help for Functions

You can use the lookfor command to find functions that are
relevant to your application.

For example, type lookfor imaginary to get a list of the

functions that deal with imaginary numbers. You will see listed:

imag Complex imaginary part

i Imaginary unit
j Imaginary unit

3-2
 Common mathematical functions:
Exponential
exp(x) Exponential; e x

sqrt(x) Square root; x

Logarithmic
log(x) Natural logarithm; ln x

log10(x) Common (base 10) logarithm; log

x = log10 x

(continued…)
3-3
 Some common mathematical functions (continued)

Complex
abs(x) Absolute value.
angle(x) Angle of a complex number.
conj(x) Complex conjugate.
imag(x) Imaginary part of a complex
real(x) number.
Real part of a complex number.

3-4 (continued…)
 Some common mathematical functions (continued)

Numeric
ceil(x) Round to nearest integer toward ∞.
fix(x) Round to nearest integer toward
floor(x) zero.
round(x)Round to nearest integer toward -∞.
sign(x) Round toward nearest integer.
Signum function:
+1 if x > 0; 0 if x = 0; -1 if x < 0.
3-5
The rectangular
and polar
representations
of the complex
number a + ib.

3-6
 Operations with Complex Numbers

>>x = -3 + 4i;
>>y = 6 - 8i;
>>mag_x = abs(x)
mag_x =
5.0000
>>mag_y = abs(y)
mag_y =
10.0000
>>mag_product = abs(x*y)
50.0000

(continued …)
3-7
 Operations with Complex Numbers (continued)

>>angle_x = angle(x)
angle_x =
2.2143
>>angle_y = angle(y)
angle_y =
-0.9273
>>sum_angles = angle_x + angle_y
sum_angles =
1.2870
>>angle_product = angle(x*y)
angle_product =
1.2870

3-8
 Operations on Arrays
MATLAB will treat a variable as an array automatically. For
example, to compute the square roots of 5, 7, and 15, type

>>x = [5,7,15];
>>y = sqrt(x)
y =
2.2361 2.6358 3.8730

3-9
 Expressing Function Arguments
We can write sin 2 in text, but MATLAB requires parentheses
surrounding the 2 (which is called the function argument or
parameter).

Thus to evaluate sin 2 in MATLAB, we type sin(2). The

MATLAB function name must be followed by a pair of
parentheses that surround the argument.

To express in text the sine of the second element of the array x,

we would type sin[x(2)]. However, in MATLAB you cannot
use square brackets or braces in this way, and you must type
sin(x(2)).

(continued …)
3-10
 Expressing Function Arguments (continued)

To evaluate sin(x 2 + 5), you type sin(x.^2 + 5).

To evaluate sin(x+1), you type sin(sqrt(x)+1).

Using a function as an argument of another function is called

function composition. Be sure to check the order of
precedence and the number and placement of parentheses
when typing such expressions.

Every left-facing parenthesis requires a right-facing mate.

However, this condition does not guarantee that the
expression is correct!

3-11
 Expressing Function Arguments (continued)
Another common mistake involves expressions like sin2 x,
which means (sin x)2.

In MATLAB we write this expression as (sin(x))^2, not

as sin^2(x), sin^2x, sin(x^2), or sin(x)^2!

3-12
 Expressing Function Arguments (continued)

The MATLAB trigonometric functions operate in radian mode.

Thus sin(5) computes the sine of 5 rad, not the sine of 5°.

To convert between degrees and radians, use the relation qradians =

(p /180)qdegrees.

3-13
Trigonometric functions:

cos(x) Cosine; cos x.

cot(x) Cotangent; cot x.

csc(x) Cosecant; csc x.

sec(x) Secant; sec x.

sin(x) Sine; sin x.

tan(x) Tangent; tan x.

3-14
 Inverse Trigonometric functions:

acos(x) Inverse cosine; arccos x.

acot(x) Inverse cotangent; arccot x.
acsc(x) Inverse cosecant; arccsc x.
asec(x) Inverse secant; arcsec x.
asin(x) Inverse sine; arcsin x .
atan(x) Inverse tangent; arctan x .
atan2(y,x) Four-quadrant inverse
tangent.

3-15
Hyperbolic functions

cosh(x) Hyperbolic cosine

coth(x) Hyperbolic cotangent.

csch(x) Hyperbolic cosecant

sech(x) Hyperbolic secant

sinh(x) Hyperbolic sine

tanh(x) Hyperbolic tangent

3-16
 Inverse Hyperbolic functions:

acosh(x) Inverse hyperbolic cosine

acoth(x) Inverse hyperbolic cotangent

acsch(x) Inverse hyperbolic cosecant

asech(x) Inverse hyperbolic secant

asinh(x) Inverse hyperbolic sine

atanh(x) Inverse hyperbolic tangent;

3-17
 User-Defined Functions

The first line in a function file must begin with a function definition
line that has a list of inputs and outputs. This line distinguishes a
function M-file from a script M-file. Its syntax is as follows:

function [output variables] = name(input variables)

Note that the output variables are enclosed in square brackets,

while the input variables must be enclosed with parentheses. The
function name (here, name) should be the same as the file name in
which it is saved (with the .m extension).

3-18
 User-Defined Functions: Example

function z = fun(x,y)
u = 3*x;
z = u + 6*y.^2;

Note the use of a semicolon at the end of the lines. This

prevents the values of u and z from being displayed.

Note also the use of the array exponentiation operator (.^).

This enables the function to accept y as an array.

(continued …)
3-19
 User-Defined Functions: Example (continued)

Call this function with its output argument:

>>z = fun(3,7)
z =
303

The function uses x = 3 and y = 7 to compute z.

(continued …)
3-20
 User-Defined Functions: Example (continued)

Call this function without its output argument and try to access
its value. You will see an error message.

>>fun(3,7)
ans =
303
>>z
??? Undefined function or variable ’z’.

(continued …)

3-21
 User-Defined Functions: Example (continued)

Assign the output argument to another variable:

>>q = fun(3,7)
q =
303

You can suppress the output by putting a semicolon after the

function call.

For example, if you type q = fun(3,7); the value of q will

be computed but not displayed (because of the semicolon).

3-22
 Local Variables: The variables x and y are local to the function
fun, so unless you pass their values by naming them x and y,
their values will not be available in the workspace outside the
function. The variable u is also local to the function. For
example,
>>x = 3;y = 7;
>>q = fun(x,y);
>>x
x =
3
>>y
y =
7
>>u
??? Undefined function or variable ’u’.

3-23
 Only the order of the arguments is important, not the names
of the arguments:

>>x = 7;y = 3;
>>z = fun(y,x)
z =
303

The second line is equivalent to z = fun(3,7).

3-24
 You can use arrays as input arguments:

>>r = fun(2:4,7:9)
r =
300 393 498

3-25
 A function may have more than one output. These are
enclosed in square brackets.

For example, the function circle computes the area A and

circumference C of a circle, given its radius as an input
argument.

function [A, C] = circle(r)

A = pi*r.^2;
C = 2*pi*r;

3-26
 The function is called as follows, if the radius is 4.

>>[A, C] = circle(4)
A =
50.2655
C =
25.1327

3-27
 A function may have no input arguments and no output list.

For example, the function show_date clears all variables,

clears the screen, computes and stores the date in the variable
today, and then displays the value of today.

function show_date
clear
clc
today = date

3-28
 Examples of Function Definition Lines
1. One input, one output:

function [area_square] = square(side)

2. Brackets are optional for one input, one output:

function area_square = square(side)

3. Two inputs, one output:

function [volume_box] = box(height,width,length)

4. One input, two outputs:

function [area_circle,circumf] = circle(radius)

5. No named output: function sqplot(side)

3-29
 Function Example

function [dist,vel] = drop(g,vO,t);

% Computes the distance travelled and the
% velocity of a dropped object,
% as functions of g,
% the initial velocity vO, and
% the time t.
vel = g*t + vO;
dist = 0.5*g*t.^2 + vO*t;

(continued …)
3-30
 Function Example (continued)

1. The variable names used in the function definition may, but

need not, be used when the function is called:

>>a = 32.2;
>>initial_speed = 10;
>>time = 5;
>>[feet_dropped,speed] = . . .
drop(a,initial_speed,time)

(continued …)
3-31
 Function Example (continued)

2. The input variables need not be assigned values outside the

function prior to the function call:

[feet_dropped,speed] = drop(32.2,10,5)

3. The inputs and outputs may be arrays:

[feet_dropped,speed]=drop(32.2,10,0:1:5)

This function call produces the arrays feet_dropped and

speed, each with six values corresponding to the six values of
time in the array time.

3-32
 Local Variables

The names of the input variables given in the function

definition line are local to that function.

This means that other variable names can be used when you
call the function.

All variables inside a function are erased after the function

finishes executing, except when the same variable names
appear in the output variable list used in the function call.

3-33
 Global Variables

The global command declares certain variables global, and

therefore their values are available to the basic workspace and
to other functions that declare these variables global.

The syntax to declare the variables a, x, and q is

global a x q

Any assignment to those variables, in any function or in the

base workspace, is available to all the other functions declaring
them global.

More? See pages 124.

3-34
 Function Handles

You can create a function handle to any function by using the

at sign, @, before the function name. You can then use the
handle to reference the function. To create a handle to the
function y = x + 2e-x -3, define the following function file:

function y = f1(x)
y = x + 2*exp(-x) - 3;

You can pass the function as an argument to another function.

For example, we can plot the function over 0 £ x £ 6 as follows:

>>plot(0:0.01:6,@f1)

3-35
 Finding Zeros of a Function

You can use the fzero function to find the zero of a function
of a single variable, which is denoted by x. One form of its
syntax is

fzero(@function, x0)

where @function is the function handle for the function

function, and x0 is a user-supplied guess for the zero.

The fzero function returns a value of x that is near x0.

It identifies only points where the function crosses the x-axis,
not points where the function just touches the axis.
For example, fzero(@cos,2) returns the value 1.5708.

3-36
 Using fzero with User-Defined Functions

To use the fzero function to find the zeros of more complicated

functions, it is more convenient to define the function in a
function file.

For example, if y = x + 2e-x -3, define the following function file:

function y = f1(x)
y = x + 2*exp(-x) - 3;

(continued …)
3-37
Plot of the function y = x + 2e-x - 3.

There is a
zero near x =
-0.5 and one
near x = 3.

3-38 (continued …)
 Example (continued)

To find a more precise value of the zero

near x = -0.5, type

>>x = fzero(@f1,-0.5)

The answer is x = -0.5881.

3-39
 Finding the Minimum of a Function

The fminbnd function finds the minimum of a function of a

single variable, which is denoted by x. One form of its syntax
is

fminbnd(@function, x1, x2)

where @function is the function handle for the function.

The fminbnd function returns a value of x that minimizes
the function in the interval x1 ≤ x ≤ x2.

For example, fminbnd(@cos,0,4) returns the value

3.1416.

3-40
 When using fminbnd it is more convenient to define the
function in a function file. For example, if y = 1 - xe -x , define
the following function file:

function y = f2(x)
y = 1-x.*exp(-x);

To find the value of x that gives a minimum of y for 0 £ x £ 5,

type

>>x = fminbnd(@f2,0,5)

The answer is x = 1. To find the minimum value of y, type y =

f2(x). The result is y = 0.6321.

3-41
 A function can have one or more local minima
and a global minimum.
If the specified range of the independent variable
does not enclose the global minimum, fminbnd
will not find the global minimum.
fminbnd will find a minimum that occurs on a
boundary.

3-42
Plot of the function y = 0.025x 5 - 0.0625x 4 - 0.333x 3 + x 2.

Figure 3.2–2

This function
has one local
and one
global
minimum.
On the
interval [1, 4]
the minimum
is at the
boundary, x
= 1.

3-43
 To find the minimum of a function of more than one variable, use
the fminsearch function. One form of its syntax is

fminsearch(@function, x0)

where @function is the function handle of the function in

question. The vector x0 is a guess that must be supplied by the
user.

3-44
 To minimize the function f = xe-x2 - y2 , we first define it in an M-
file, using the vector x whose elements are x(1) = x and
x(2) = y.

function f = f4(x)
f = x(1).*exp(-x(1).^2-x(2).^2);

Suppose we guess that the minimum is near x = y = 0. The

session is

>>fminsearch(@f4,[0,0])
ans =
-0.7071 0.000

Thus the minimum occurs at x = -0.7071, y = 0.

3-45
 Methods for Calling Functions

There are four ways to invoke, or “call,” a function into action.

These are:

1. As a character string identifying the appropriate function

M-file,
2. As a function handle,
3. As an “inline” function object, or
4. As a string expression.

Examples of these ways follow for the fzero function used

with the user-defined function fun1, which computes y =
x2 - 4.

(continued …)
3-46
 Methods for Calling Functions (continued)

1. As a character string identifying the appropriate function

M-file, which is

function y = fun1(x)
y = x.^2-4;

The function may be called as follows, to compute the zero

over the range0 £ x £ 3:

>>[x, value] = fzero(’fun1’,[0, 3])

(continued …)
3-47
 Methods for Calling Functions (continued)

2. As a function handle to an existing function M-file:

>>[x, value] = fzero(@fun1,[0, 3])

3. As an “inline” function object:

>>fun1 = ’x.^2-4’;
>>fun_inline = inline(fun1);
>>[x, value] = fzero(fun_inline,[0, 3])

(continued …)
3-48
 Methods for Calling Functions (continued)

4. As a string expression:

>>fun1 = ’x.^2-4’;
>>[x, value] = fzero(fun1,[0, 3])

or as

>>[x, value] = fzero(’x.^2-4’,[0, 3])

(continued …)
3-49
 Methods for Calling Functions (continued)

The function handle method (method 2) is the fastest

method, followed by method 1.

In addition to speed improvement, another advantage of

using a function handle is that it provides access to
subfunctions, which are normally not visible outside of their
defining M-file.

3-50
 Types of User-Defined Functions

The following types of user-defined functions can be created

in MATLAB.

• The primary function is the first function in an M-file and

typically contains the main program. Following the primary
function in the same file can be any number of subfunctions,
which can serve as subroutines to the primary function.

(continued …)
3-51
 Types of User-Defined Functions (continued)

Usually the primary function is the only function in

an M-file that you can call from the MATLAB
command line or from another M-file function.

You invoke this function using the name of the M-

file in which it is defined.

We normally use the same name for the function

and its file, but if the function name differs from the
file name, you must use the file name to invoke the
function.

(continued …)
3-52
 Types of User-Defined Functions (continued)

• Anonymous functions enable you to create a simple

function without needing to create an M-file for it. You
can construct an anonymous function either at the
MATLAB command line or from within another function
or script. Thus, anonymous functions provide a quick way
of making a function from any MATLAB expression without
the need to create, name, and save a file.

(continued …)
3-53
 Types of User-Defined Functions (continued)

• Subfunctions are placed in the primary function and are

called by the primary function. You can use multiple
functions within a single primary function M-file.

(continued …)

3-54
 Types of User-Defined Functions (continued)

• Nested functions are functions defined within another

function. They can help to improve the readability of
your program and also give you more flexible access to
variables in the M-file.

The difference between nested functions and subfunctions

is that subfunctions normally cannot be accessed outside of
their primary function file.

(continued …)
3-55
 Types of User-Defined Functions (continued)

• Overloaded functions are functions that respond

differently to different types of input arguments. They are
similar to overloaded functions in any object-oriented
language.

For example, an overloaded function can be created to treat

integer inputs differently than inputs of class double.

(continued …)
3-56
 Types of User-Defined Functions (continued)

• Private functions enable you to restrict access to a

function. They can be called only from an M-file
function in the parent directory.

3-57
 The term function function is not a separate function
type but refers to any function that accepts another
function as an input argument, such as the function
fzero.

You can pass a function to another function using a

function handle.

3-58
 Anonymous Functions

Anonymous functions enable you to create a simple

function without needing to create an M-file for it. You can
construct an anonymous function either at the MATLAB
command line or from within another function or script.
The syntax for creating an anonymous function from an
expression is

fhandle = @(arglist) expr

where arglist is a comma-separated list of input

arguments to be passed to the function, and expr is any
single, valid MATLAB expression.

(continued …)
3-59
 Anonymous Functions (continued)

To create a simple function called sq to calculate the square of a

number, type

>>sq = @(x) x.^2;

To improve readability, you may enclose the expression in

parentheses, as sq = @(x) (x.^2);. To execute the
function, type the name of the function handle, followed by any
input arguments enclosed in parentheses. For example,

>>sq([5,7])
ans =
25 49

3-60 (continued …)
 Anonymous Functions (continued)

You might think that this particular anonymous function

will not save you any work because typing sq([5,7])
requires nine keystrokes, one more than is required to
type [5,7].^2.

Here, however, the anonymous function protects you

from forgetting to type the period (.) required for array
exponentiation.

Anonymous functions are useful, however, for more

complicated functions involving numerous keystrokes.

(continued …)
3-61
 Anonymous Functions (continued)

You can pass the handle of an anonymous function to other

functions. For example, to find the minimum of the
polynomial 4x2 - 50x + 5 over the interval [-10, 10], you type

>>poly1 = @(x) 4*x.^2 - 50*x + 5;

>>fminbnd(poly1, -10, 10)
ans =
6.2500
If you are not going to use that polynomial again, you can omit
the handle definition line and type instead

>>fminbnd(@(x) 4*x.^2 - 50*x + 5, -10, 10)

3-62
 Multiple Input Arguments

You can create anonymous functions having more than one

input. For example, to define the function
Ö(x 2 + y 2), type

>>sqrtsum = @(x,y) sqrt(x.^2 + y.^2);

Then type

>>sqrtsum(3, 4)
ans =
5

3-63
 As another example, consider the function defining a
plane, z = Ax + By. The scalar variables A and B must be
assigned values before you create the function handle.
For example,

>>A = 6; B = 4:
>>plane = @(x,y) A*x + B*y;
>>z = plane(2,8)
z =
44

3-64
 Calling One Function within Another

One anonymous function can call another to implement

function composition. Consider the function 5 sin(x 3). It is
composed of the functions g(y) = 5 sin(y) and f (x) = x 3. In the
following session the function whose handle is h calls the
functions whose handles are f and g.

>>f = @(x) x.^3;

>>g = @(x) 5*sin(x);
>>h = @(x) g(f(x));
>>h(2)
ans =
4.9468

3-65
 Variables and Anonymous Functions

Variables can appear in anonymous functions in two ways:

• As variables specified in the argument list, as for example f
= @(x) x.^3;, and

(continued …)
3-66
 Variables and Anonymous Functions (continued)

• As variables specified in the body of the expression,

as for example with the variables A and B in plane
= @(x,y) A*x + B*y.

When the function is created MATLAB captures the

values of these variables and retains those values for
the lifetime of the function handle. If the values of A
or B are changed after the handle is created, their
values associated with the handle do not change.

This feature has both advantages and

disadvantages, so you must keep it in mind.

3-67
 Subfunctions

A function M-file may contain more than one user-defined

function. The first defined function in the file is called the primary
function, whose name is the same as the M-file name. All other
functions in the file are called subfunctions.

Subfunctions are normally “visible” only to the primary function

and other subfunctions in the same file; that is, they normally
cannot be called by programs or functions outside the file.
However, this limitation can be removed with the use of function
handles.

(continued …)
3-68
 Subfunctions (continued)

Create the primary function first with a function

definition line and its defining code, and name the file
with this function name as usual.

Then create each subfunction with its own function

definition line and defining code.

The order of the subfunctions does not matter, but

function names must be unique within the M-file.

3-69
 Precedence When Calling Functions

The order in which MATLAB checks for functions is very

important. When a function is called from within an M-file,
MATLAB first checks to see if the function is a built-in
function such as sin.

If not, it checks to see if it is a subfunction in the file, then

checks to see if it is a private function (which is a function
M-file residing in the private subdirectory of the calling
function).

Then MATLAB checks for a standard M-file on your search

path.
(continued …)
3-70
 Precedence When Calling Functions (continued)

Thus, because MATLAB checks for a subfunction before

checking for private and standard M-file functions, you may
use subfunctions with the same name as another existing M-
file.

This feature allows you to name subfunctions without being

concerned about whether another function exists with the
same name, so you need not choose long function names to
avoid conflict.

This feature also protects you from using another function

unintentionally.

3-71
 The following example shows how the MATLAB M-function
mean can be superceded by our own definition of the
mean, one which gives the root-mean square value.

The function mean is a subfunction.

The function subfun_demo is the primary function.

function y = subfun_demo(a)
y = a - mean(a);
%
function w = mean(x)
w = sqrt(sum(x.^2))/length(x);

(continued …)
3-72
 Example (continued)

A sample session follows.

>>y = subfn_demo([4, -4])

y =
1.1716 -6.8284

If we had used the MATLAB M-function mean, we would

have obtained a different answer; that is,

>>a=[4,-4];
>>b = a - mean(a)
b =
4 -4

3-73
 Thus the use of subfunctions enables you to reduce the
number of files that define your functions.

For example, if it were not for the subfunction mean in the

previous example, we would have had to define a separate
M-file for our mean function and give it a different name so
as not to confuse it with the MATLAB function of the same
name.

Subfunctions are normally visible only to the primary

function and other subfunctions in the same file.

However, we can use a function handle to allow access to

the subfunction from outside the M-file.

3-74
 Nested Functions

With MATLAB 7 you can now place the definitions of one

or more functions within another function. Functions so
defined are said to be nested within the main function.
You can also nest functions within other nested functions.

(continued …)

3-75
 Nested Functions (continued)

Like any M-file function, a nested function contains

the usual components of an M-file function.

You must, however, always terminate a nested

function with an end statement.

In fact, if an M-file contains at least one nested

function, you must terminate all functions, including
subfunctions, in the file with an end statement,
whether or not they contain nested functions.

(continued …)
3-76
 Example

The following example constructs a function handle for a

nested function and then passes the handle to the MATLAB
function fminbnd to find the minimum point on a parabola.
The parabola function constructs and returns a function
handle f for the nested function p. This handle gets passed to
fminbnd.

function f = parabola(a, b, c)
f = @p;
function y = p(x)
y = a*x^2 + b*x + c;
end
end
(continued …)
3-77
 Example (continued)

In the Command window type

>>f = parabola(4, -50, 5);

>>fminbnd(f, -10, 10)
ans =
6.2500

Note than the function p(x) can see the variables a, b,

and c in the calling function’s workspace.

3-78
 Nested functions might seem to be the same as
subfunctions, but they are not. Nested functions have
two unique properties:

1. A nested function can access the workspaces of all

functions inside of which it is nested. So for example, a
variable that has a value assigned to it by the primary
function can be read or overwritten by a function nested
at any level within the main function.

A variable assigned in a nested function can be read

or overwritten by any of the functions containing that
function.

(continued …)
3-79
 2. If you construct a function handle for a nested function,
the handle not only stores the information needed to access
the nested function; it also stores the values of all
variables shared between the nested function and those
functions that contain it.

This means that these variables persist in memory between

calls made by means of the function handle.

3-80
 Private Functions

Private functions reside in subdirectories with the special

name private, and they are visible only to functions in
the parent directory.

Assume the directory rsmith is on the MATLAB search

path. A subdirectory of rsmith called private may
contain functions that only the functions in rsmith can
call. Because private functions are invisible outside the
parent directory rsmith, they can use the same names
as functions in other directories.

(continued …)
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 Private Functions (continued)

Primary functions and subfunctions can be implemented

as private functions.

Create a private directory by creating a subdirectory called

private using the standard procedure for creating a
directory or a folder on your computer, but do not place
the private directory on your path.

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 Importing Spreadsheet Files

Some spreadsheet programs store data in the .wk1

format. You can use the command
M = wk1read(’filename’) to import this data
into MATLAB and store it in the matrix M.

The command A = xlsread(’filename’)

imports the Microsoft Excel workbook file
filename.xls into the array A. The command [A,
B] = xlsread(’filename’) imports all numeric
data into the array A and all text data into the cell array
B.

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 The Import Wizard

To import ASCII data, you must know how the data in the file
is formatted.

For example, many ASCII data files use a fixed (or uniform)
format of rows and columns.

(continued …)
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 The Import Wizard (continued)

For these files, you should know the following.

• How many data items are in each row?

• Are the data items numeric, text strings, or a mixture

of both types?

• Does each row or column have a descriptive text

header?

• What character is used as the delimiter, that is, the

character used to separate the data items in each
row? The delimiter is also called the column
separator.
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 The Import Wizard (continued)

You can use the Import Wizard to import many types of

ASCII data formats, including data on the clipboard. When
you use the Import Wizard to create a variable in the
MATLAB workspace, it overwrites any existing variable in the
workspace with the same name without issuing a warning.

The Import Wizard presents a series of dialog boxes in which

you:

1. Specify the name of the file you want to import,

2. Specify the delimiter used in the file, and
3. Select the variables that you want to import.

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The first screen in the Import Wizard.

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