S2-19_DSECLZC415

Data Pre-processing
BITS Pilani
Pilani|Dubai|Goa|Hyderabad

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Slide Courtesy: Prof. T.V. Rao
• The slides presented here are obtained from the authors of the
books and from various other contributors. I hereby
acknowledge all the contributors for their material and inputs.
• I have added and modified a few slides to suit the requirements
of the course.
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 Data Preprocessing Concepts

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 Preprocessing Objectives
• To improve data quality
• To modify data to better fit specific data mining technique

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 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
• Data cleaning
• Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and
resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
• Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data reduction
• Dimensionality reduction
• Numerosity reduction
• Data compression
• Data transformation and data discretization
• Normalization
• Concept hierarchy generation 5

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 Data Quality: Multidimensional View
• Measures for data quality: A multidimensional view
– Accuracy: correct or wrong, accurate or not
– Completeness: not recorded, unavailable, …
– Consistency: some modified but some not, dangling, …
– Timeliness: timely update?
– Believability: how trustable the data are correct?
– Interpretability: how easily the data can be understood?

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 Data Quality
• What kinds of data quality problems?
• How can we detect problems with the data?
• What can we do about these problems?
• Examples of data quality problems:
– Noise and outliers
– missing values
– duplicate data

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 Data Cleaning
• Data in the Real World Is Dirty: Lots of potentially incorrect data, e.g.,
instrument faulty, human or computer error, transmission error
– incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of interest,
or containing only aggregate data
• e.g., Occupation = “ ” (missing data)
– noisy: containing noise, errors, or outliers
• e.g., Salary = “−10” (an error)
– inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names, e.g.,
• Age = “42”, Birthday = “03/07/2010”
• Was rating “1, 2, 3”, now rating “A, B, C”
• discrepancy between duplicate records
– Intentional (e.g., disguised missing data)
• Jan. 1 as everyone’s birthday?
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 Incomplete (Missing) Data
• Data is not always available
– E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such as
customer income in sales data
• Missing data may be due to
– equipment malfunction
– inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
– data not entered due to misunderstanding
– certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry
– not register history or changes of the data
• Missing data may need to be inferred

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 How to Handle Missing Data?
• Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (when doing
classification)—not effective when the % of missing values per attribute varies
considerably
• Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
• Fill in it automatically with
– a global constant : e.g., “unknown”, a new class?!
– the attribute mean
– the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class: smarter
– the most probable value: inference-based such as Bayesian formula or decision
tree

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 Noisy Data
• Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
• Incorrect attribute values may be due to
– faulty data collection instruments
– data entry problems
– data transmission problems
– technology limitation
– inconsistency in naming convention
• Other data problems which require data cleaning
– duplicate records
– incomplete data
– inconsistent data

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 How to Handle Noisy Data?
• Binning (also used for discretization)
– first sort data and partition into (equal-frequency) bins
– then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth by bin
boundaries, etc.
– Binning methods smooth a sorted data value by consulting its "neighborhood,"
that is, the values around it, i.e. they perform local smoothing.
• Regression
– smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
• Clustering
– detect and remove outliers
• Combined computer and human inspection
– detect suspicious values and check by human (e.g., deal with possible outliers)

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 Noise
Noise refers to modification of original values
– Examples: distortion of a person’s voice when talking on a poor phone
and “snow” on television screen

Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise

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 Duplicate Data
• Data set may include data objects that are duplicates, or almost duplicates of one
another
– Major issue when merging data from heterogenous sources

• Examples:
– Same person with multiple email addresses

• Data cleaning
– Process of dealing with duplicate data issues

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 Outliers
Outliers are data objects with characteristics that are considerably
different than most of the other data objects in the data set

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 Data Cleaning as a Process
• Data discrepancy detection
– Use metadata (e.g., domain, range, dependency, distribution)
– Check field overloading
– Check uniqueness rule, consecutive rule and null rule
– Use commercial tools
• Data scrubbing: use simple domain knowledge (e.g., postal code, spell-check) to detect
errors and make corrections
• Data auditing: by analyzing data to discover rules and relationship to detect violators
(e.g., correlation and clustering to find outliers)
• Data migration and integration
– Data migration tools: allow transformations to be specified
– ETL (Extraction/Transformation/Loading) tools: allow users to specify transformations
through a graphical user interface
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• Integration of the two processes

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 Data Preprocessing Techniques

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 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
• Data cleaning
– Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and
resolve inconsistencies
• Data integration
– Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
• Data reduction
– Dimensionality reduction
– Numerosity reduction
– Data compression
• Data transformation and data discretization
– Normalization
– Concept hierarchy generation

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Data Integration
• Data integration:
– Combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store
• Schema integration: e.g., A.cust-id  B.cust-#
– Integrate metadata from different sources
• Entity identification problem:
– Identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., Bill Clinton =
William Clinton
• Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
– For the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources are
different
– Possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric vs.
British units
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 Any problems with the Data?
Name Age DateOfFirstBuy Profession DateOfBirth
Bill Gates 34 15-Jan-2015 MGR Feb 24, 1981
John 33 27-Jan-2015   Mar 27, 1982
William 34 15-Jan-2015 MGR Feb 24, 1981
Gates
Kennedy 32 30-Jan-2015 DOC Nov 25,1982

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 Any problems with the Data?
Name Age DateOfFirstBuy Profession DateOfBirth
Bill Gates 34 15-Jan-2015 MGR Feb 24, 1981
John 33 27-Jan-2015   Mar 27, 1982
William Gates 34 15-Jan-2015 MGR Feb 24, 1981
Kennedy 32 30-Jan-2015 DOC Nov 25,1982

1) Missing values in Profession column

2) Format of DateOfFirstBuy and DateOfBirth are different, needs
standardization
3) Row 1 and Row 3 are potentially duplicate data.
4) Both Age and DateOfBirth are stored. Age is derived attribute.
5) Inconsistent format for name, missing first or last names
6) Entity identification issues

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 Handling Redundancy in Data
Integration
• Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple databases
– Object identification: The same attribute or object may have different
names in different databases
– Derivable data: One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in another
table, e.g., annual revenue
• Redundant attributes may be able to be detected by correlation analysis
and covariance analysis
• Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help
reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and improve mining speed
and quality

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Correlation Analysis (Nominal Data)
• Χ2 (chi-square) test
(Observed  Expected ) 2
 
2

Expected

• The larger the Χ2 value, the more likely the variables are related
• The cells that contribute the most to the Χ2 value are those whose actual
count is very different from the expected count
• Correlation does not imply causality
• # of hospitals and # of car-theft in a city are correlated
• Both are causally linked to the third variable: population

Data Mining
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Chi-Square Calculation: An Example
Play chess Not play chess Sum (row)
Like science fiction 250(90) 200(360) 450

Not like science fiction 50(210) 1000(840) 1050

Sum(col.) 300 1200 1500

• Χ2 (chi-square) calculation (numbers in parenthesis are expected counts calculated

based on the data distribution in the two categories)

(250  90) 2 (50  210) 2 (200  360) 2 (1000  840) 2

 
2
    507.93
90 210 360 840

• It shows that like_science_fiction and play_chess are correlated in the group

Data Mining
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Correlation Analysis (Numeric Data)
• Correlation coefficient (also called Pearson’s product moment coefficient)

i 1 (ai  A)(bi  B) 
n n
(ai bi )  n AB
rA, B   i 1

(n  1) A B (n  1) A B

where n is the number of tuples, A and B are the respective means of A and B,
σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B, and Σ(a ibi) is the
sum of the AB cross-product.
• If rA,B > 0, A and B are positively correlated (A’s values increase as B’s). The
higher, the stronger correlation.
• rA,B = 0: independent; rAB < 0: negatively correlated

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Data Mining

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Correlation (viewed as linear relationship)
• Correlation measures the linear relationship between objects
• To compute correlation, we standardize data objects, A and B, and then
take their dot product

a 'k  (ak  mean( A)) / std ( A)

b'k  (bk  mean( B)) / std ( B )

correlatio n( A, B)  A' B'

Data Mining
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Covariance (Numeric Data)
• Covariance is similar to correlation

Correlation coefficient:

where n is the number of tuples, A and B are the respective mean or expected
values of A and B, σA and σB are the respective standard deviation of A and B
• Positive covariance: If CovA,B > 0, then A and B both tend to be larger than their
expected values
• Negative covariance: If CovA,B < 0 then if A is larger than its expected value, B is
likely to be smaller than its expected value
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• Independence: CovA,B = 0

Data Mining

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Co-Variance: An Example
• It can be simplified in computation as

• Suppose two stocks A and B have the following values in one week: (2, 5), (3, 8), (5, 10), (4, 11),
(6, 14).

• Question: If the stocks are affected by the same industry trends, will their prices rise or fall
together?
• E(A) = (2 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 6)/ 5 = 20/5 = 4

• E(B) = (5 + 8 + 10 + 11 + 14) /5 = 48/5 = 9.6

• Cov(A,B) = (2×5+3×8+5×10+4×11+6×14)/5 − 4 × 9.6 = 4

• Thus, A and B rise together since Cov(A, B) > 0.

Data Mining

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Discretization
• Three types of attributes
• Nominal—values from an unordered set, e.g., color, profession
• Ordinal—values from an ordered set, e.g., military or academic rank
• Numeric—real numbers, e.g., integer or real numbers
• Discretization: Divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals
• Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values
• Reduce data size by discretization
• Supervised vs. unsupervised
• Split (top-down) vs. merge (bottom-up)
• Discretization can be performed recursively on an attribute
• Prepare for further analysis, e.g., classification

Data Mining
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 Data Discretization Methods
• Typical methods: All the methods can be applied recursively
• Binning
• Top-down split, unsupervised
• Histogram analysis
• Top-down split, unsupervised
• Clustering analysis (unsupervised, top-down split or bottom-up merge)
• Decision-tree analysis (supervised, top-down split)
• Correlation (e.g., 2) analysis (unsupervised, bottom-up merge)

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Data Mining

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

 Simple Discretization: Binning
• Equal-width (distance) partitioning
• Divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid
• if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width of intervals
will be: W = (B –A)/N.
• The most straightforward, but outliers may dominate presentation
• Skewed data is not handled well

• Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning

• Divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately same number of
samples
• Good data scaling
• Managing categorical attributes can be tricky

Data Mining
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Binning Methods for Data Smoothing

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956

Discretization by Classification & Correlation
Analysis
• Classification (e.g., decision tree analysis)
• Supervised: Given class labels, e.g., cancerous vs. benign
• Using entropy to determine split point (discretization point)
• Top-down, recursive split
• Details to be covered in Chapter “Classification”

• Correlation analysis (e.g., Chi-merge: χ2-based discretization)

• Supervised: use class information
• Bottom-up merge: find the best neighboring intervals (those having similar
distributions of classes, i.e., low χ2 values) to merge
• Merge performed recursively, until a predefined stopping condition
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Data Mining

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Data Reduction Strategies
• Data reduction: Obtain a reduced representation of the data set that is much smaller in volume but yet

produces the same (or almost the same) analytical results

• Why data reduction? — A database/data warehouse may store terabytes of data. Complex data analysis may

take a very long time to run on the complete data set.

• Data reduction strategies

• Dimensionality reduction, e.g., remove unimportant attributes

• Wavelet transforms

• Principal Components Analysis (PCA)

• Feature subset selection, feature creation

• Numerosity reduction (some simply call it: Data Reduction)

• Regression and Log-Linear Models

• Histograms, clustering, sampling

• Data cube aggregation

• Data compression Data Mining

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Data Reduction : Dimensionality
Reduction
• Curse of dimensionality
• When dimensionality increases, data becomes increasingly sparse
• Density and distance between points, which is critical to clustering, outlier
analysis, becomes less meaningful
• The possible combinations of subspaces will grow exponentially
• Dimensionality reduction
• Avoid the curse of dimensionality
• Help eliminate irrelevant features and reduce noise
• Reduce time and space required in data mining
• Allow easier visualization
• Dimensionality reduction techniques
• Wavelet transforms
• Principal Component Analysis
• Supervised and nonlinear techniques (e.g., feature selection)

Data Mining
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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
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Curse of Dimensionality
• When dimensionality increases, data
becomes increasingly sparse in the
space that it occupies

• Definitions of density and distance

between points, which are critical for
clustering and outlier detection,
become less meaningful

• Randomly generate 500 points

• Compute difference between max and min
distance between any pair of points

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 Mapping Data to a New Space

 Fourier transform
 Wavelet transform

Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise Frequency

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 Wavelet Transformation
• Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for linear signal processing, multi-resolution
analysis
• Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of the strongest of the
wavelet coefficients
• Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy compression, localized
in space
• Method:
– Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0’s, when necessary)
– Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
– Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
– Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length

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 Wavelet Decomposition
Wavelets: A math tool for space-efficient hierarchical decomposition of
functions
S = [2, 2, 0, 2, 3, 5, 4, 4] can be transformed to S ^ = [23/4, -11/4, 1/2, 0, 0, -1, -1,
0]
Compression: many small detail coefficients can be replaced by 0’s, and only
the significant coefficients are retained

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 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
Find a projection that captures the largest amount of variation in data
The original data are projected onto a much smaller space, resulting in
dimensionality reduction.

x2

x1

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Principal Component Analysis (Steps)
• Given N data vectors from n-dimensions, find k ≤ n orthogonal vectors (principal
components) that can be best used to represent data
– Normalize input data: Each attribute falls within the same range
– Compute k orthonormal (unit) vectors, i.e., principal components
– Each input data (vector) is a linear combination of the k principal component
vectors
– The principal components are sorted in order of decreasing “significance” or
strength
– Since the components are sorted, the size of the data can be reduced by
eliminating the weak components, i.e., those with low variance (i.e., using the
strongest principal components, it is possible to reconstruct a good approximation
of the original data)
• Works for numeric data only
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 Attribute Subset Selection
• Another way to reduce dimensionality of data
• Redundant attributes
– Duplicate much or all of the information contained in one or more other
attributes
– E.g., purchase price of a product and the amount of sales tax paid
• Irrelevant attributes
– Contain no information that is useful for the data mining task at hand
– E.g., students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of predicting students' GPA

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 Heuristic Search in Attribute Selection
• There are 2d possible attribute combinations of d attributes
• Typical heuristic attribute selection methods:
– Best single attribute under the attribute independence assumption: choose by
significance tests
– Best step-wise feature selection:
• The best single-attribute is picked first
• Then next best attribute condition to the first, ...
– Step-wise attribute elimination:
• Repeatedly eliminate the worst attribute
– Best combined attribute selection and elimination
– Optimal branch and bound:
• Use attribute elimination and backtracking

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 Attribute Creation (Feature Generation)
• Create new attributes (features) that can capture the important information in a data
set more effectively than the original ones
• Three general methodologies
– Attribute extraction
• Domain-specific
– Mapping data to new space (see: data reduction)
• E.g., Fourier transformation, wavelet transformation
– Attribute construction
• Combining features
• Data discretization

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 Data Reduction: Numerosity Reduction
• Reduce data volume by choosing alternative, smaller forms of data representation
• Parametric methods (e.g., regression)
– Assume the data fits some model, estimate model parameters, store only the
parameters, and discard the data (except possible outliers)
– Ex.: Log-linear models—obtain value at a point in m-D space as the product on
appropriate marginal subspaces
• Non-parametric methods
– Do not assume models
– Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling, …

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 Text Books

Author(s), Title, Edition, Publishing House

T1 Tan P. N., Steinbach M & Kumar V. “Introduction to Data Mining” Pearson
Education 
T2 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, Third Edition by Jiawei Han, Micheline
Kamber and Jian Pei Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
R1 Predictive Analytics and Data Mining: Concepts and Practice with RapidMiner
by Vijay Kotu and Bala Deshpande Morgan Kaufmann Publishers

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Thank You

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BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956