RESEARCH

RESEARCH METHODS
METHODS
Code
Code 3686
3686

Lecture
Lecture Seven
Seven

PROF. DR. NOMANA ANJUM

 Unit Seven

RESEARCH METHODS

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Collecting Secondary Data
7.3 Collecting Primary Data
7.4 Combined Data Generation and Analysis
7.5 Analyzing Data
 RESEARCH METHODS

7.1 Introduction

Research methods refers to the tools that one uses to do

research. These can either be qualitative or quantitative or
mixed. Quantitative methods examines numerical data and
often requires the use of statistical tools to analyse data
collected. This allows for the measurement of variables and
relationships between them can then be established. This
type of data can be represented using graphs and tables.
Qualitative data is non-numerical and focuses on establishing
patterns. Mixed methods are composed of both qualitative
and quantitative research methods. Mixed methods allow for
explanation of unexpected results.
RESEARCH METHODS

Methodology can
properly refer to
the theoretical
analysis of the
methods
appropriate to a
field of study or to
the body of
methods and
principles
particular to a
branch of
knowledge
 RESEARCH METHODS

What is the Function of Research Methodologies?

Research methodologies perform a lot of functions. It applies

to a number of jobs being done in research process.

• Research methodology identifies the research activity in a

true sense.
• It further specifies and defines the actual concepts.
• It further declares what sort of methods will be required for
further inquiry. Moreover, how progress can be measured.

• Research methodology offers a platform to demonstrate

how we can communicate research activity in a true sense.
7.2 Collecting Secondary Data

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e.,

they refer to the data which have already been collected
and analysed by someone else. Secondary data may either
be published data or unpublished data.
(a) various publications of the central, state are local
governments;
(b) (b) various publications of foreign governments or of
international bodies and their subsidiary organisations;
(c) (c) technical and trade journals;
(d) (d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) (e) reports and publications of various associations
connected with business and industry,
(f) (f) reports prepared by research scholars,
(g) (g) public records and statistics, historical documents etc.
7.2 Collecting Secondary Data

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary

data, must see that they possess following characteristics:

Reliability of data: The reliability can be tested by finding out

such things about the said data: (a) Who collected the
data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they
collected by using proper methods (d) At what time were
they collected?
Suitability of data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry
may not necessarily be found suitable in another enquiry.
Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they
should not be used by the researcher. In this context, the
researcher must very carefully scrutinise the definition of
various terms and units of collection used at the time of
collecting the data from the primary source originally. 
7.2 Collecting Secondary Data

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary

data, must see that they possess following characteristics:

Adequacy of data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is

found inadequate for the purpose of the present enquiry,
they will be considered as inadequate and should not be
used by the researcher. 

The already available data should be used by the researcher

only when he finds them reliable, suitable and adequate.
7.3 Collecting Primary Data

We collect primary data during the course of doing

experiments in an experimental research but in case we do
research of the descriptive type and perform surveys,
whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can
obtain primary data either through observation or through
direct communication with respondents in one form or
another or through personal interviews.

There are several methods of collecting primary data,

particularly in surveys and descriptive researches. Important
ones are:
•observation method
•interview method
•questionnaires
•schedules
7.3 Collecting Primary Data

other methods which include

•
warranty cards;
•distributor audits;
•pantry audits;
•consumer panels;
•using mechanical devices;
•through projective techniques;
•depth interviews, and
•content analysis.
 Methods of Data Collection

Secondary
Primary Sources
Sources

Documents Observation Interviewing Questionnaire

Mailed
Participant Structured Questionnaire
Publications
Earlier research Non- Non- Collective
Census Participant Structured Questionnaire
Personal records
Data Collection
There are various methods of data collection, each having
a distinctive feature which determines its suitability for
different research purposes. Most often, more than one
method is used to collect data from different sources to
attain the research objectives.
There are four main types of research method referred to in
social sciences research: a) the survey method
(questionnaire/interview techniques), b) field research or
observation method, c) experimental method and d)
documentary/historical method (secondary methods)
(Lin, 1976 cited by Nachmias and Nachmias, 1992).
Collecting data using primary sources

Several Methods can be used for the data

collection but choice depends upon:

• Purpose of the study

• the resources available
• The skills of the researcher
Collecting data using primary source
Survey Method (Questionnaire and Interview Techniques)

“A Survey is a method of collecting information from people about their

ideas, feelings, plans, beliefs, and social, educational, and financial
background. It usually takes the forms of questionnaires and
interviews.” (Fink, and Kosecoff, 1985)

A “survey” is generally used by policy makers, programme planners,

evaluators and researchers for planning, policy making, launching a
new programme or collecting information for research.

A survey is aimed at obtaining information directly from people to record

their views, opinions, experiences and beliefs on any particular issue
or social problem.
 A survey for social sciences research is most often planned
systematically into different stages. Patrick (1985) has suggested the
survey stages as:

 1. Choosing the topic to be  8. Finalising the questionnaire

studied  9. Selecting a sample of the
 2. Reviewing the literature population
 3. Forming hunches and  10. Selecting and training
hypotheses interviewers (if possible)
 4. Identifying the population to be  11. Collecting the data
surveyed  12. Processing the data and
 5. Carrying out the preparatory analysing the results
investigation and interviews  13. Writing the research report,
 6. Drafting the questionnaire or perhaps in the form of a book
interview schedule  14. Publication of the report
 7. Conducting a pilot survey
 Collecting data using Primary sources

Questionnaire
 “ A questionnaire is a data collection instrument
containing a select group of questions chosen because of
their relevance, carefully worded for clarity, and carefully
formatted for printed copy. A questionnaire is essential to
the collection of survey data.” (Guy et al., 1987).

 A questionnaire is designed to meet two specific goals:

firstly, to collect information or data relevant to the
research theme or topic, secondly, the information
gathered should be reliable and give a true picture of the
actual situation.
Collecting data using Primary sources

Criteria of a Good Questionnaire

1.Clarity of Language
2. Singleness of Objective
3.One to One Correspondence
4. Correct spelling, grammar and construction
Collecting data using Primary sources

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

1. Well stated title
2. Has statement of purpose
3. It assures the respondents about the confidentiality of
responses
4. It is designed to achieve the objectives of study.
5. It has a clear direction
6. There are no double negative questions
7. It avoids double barreled questions
8. The design corresponds to an easy tabulation of data
Collecting data using Primary sources

Question Types

1.Open Ended Questions

This gives respondents the ability to respond in
their own words.
2.Close-ended Questions
This gives the subject to choose one of the given
alternative
Collecting data using Primary sources

Specific types of Closed ended questions

Dichotomous Questions

Multiple Questions
Collecting data using Primary sources

Checklist

These are items that comprise sevral questions

on a topic and require the same response
format.
Collecting data using Primary sources
 Collecting data using Primary sources
Interview Technique

An interview can be personal (face to face) or by telephone. According

to Nachmias and Nachmias (1992),

“The personal interview is a face-to-face interpersonal role situation in

which an interviewer asks questions designed to elicit answers
pertinent to research hypotheses. The questions, their wording, and
their sequence define the structure of the interview.”
 
There are three basic forms of interview:
a) the scheduled structured interview
b) the focused interview
c) the non-directive interview.
Collecting data using Primary sources
Observation
It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of
watching and listening to an interaction or
phenomenon as it takes place.
When researcher is more interested in the behaviour
than the perception of an individual, or when subjects
are so involved in the activity that they can not provide
objective information, observation is the best approach
to collect the required information.

Types of Observation
Participant Observation
Non-participant observation
Collecting data using Primary sources

Experimental Approach
A powerful design for testing hypothesis od causal
relationship among variables.
Researcher controls the independent variable and
watches the effect on the dependent variable.

Two groups of Experimental Approach

1. Treatment of experimental Approach
2. Control Group
7.4 Combined Data Generation and Analysis

Data generation refers to the theory and methods used by

researchers to create data from a sampled data source in
a qualitative study.

Data sources include human participants, documents,

organizations, electronic media, and events.

Gathering together information from all sources and

observations. ... Entering narratives, numbers, and other
information into a computer program, where they can be
arranged and/or worked on in various ways. Performing
any mathematical or similar operations needed to get
quantitative information ready for analysis.  
7.4 Combined Data Generation and Analysis

Data analysis is a process of inspecting, cleansing,

transforming, and modeling data with the goal of
discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and
supporting decision-making. ... The term data analysis is
sometimes used as a synonym for data modeling.  

Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches,

encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of
names, and is used in different business, science, and
social science domains.
7.5 Analyzing Data

Analysis
Analysisrefers
refersto
tobreaking
breaking aawhole
wholeinto
intoits
itsseparate
separate
components
componentsfor forindividual
individual examination.
examination. Data
Dataanalysis
analysis isis
a process for
a process for obtaining
obtainingrawrawdata
dataand
andconverting
convertingititinto
into
information
informationuseful
usefulfor
for decision-making
decision-making by by users.
users. Data
Data
are
arecollected
collectedand
and analyzed
analyzed totoanswer
answerquestions,
questions, test
test
hypotheses
hypothesesor ordisprove
disprovetheories.
theories.
Statistician John
Statistician JohnTurkey defined
Turkey defineddata
data analysis
analysisin in1961
1961
as:
as: "Procedures
"Proceduresfor foranalyzing
analyzingdata,
data, techniques
techniquesfor for
interpreting
interpretingthe
theresults
resultsofof such
suchprocedures,
procedures, wayswaysof of
planning
planningthethegathering
gatheringof ofdata
datato
tomake
makeits itsanalysis
analysis
easier,
easier, more
more precise
preciseor ormore
more accurate,
accurate, andandall
allthe
the
machinery
machineryand and results
resultsofof(mathematical)
(mathematical)statistics
statistics which
which
apply
applytotoanalyzing
analyzingdatadata.”
.”
7.5 Analyzing Data (Data Mining)

Data mining is a particular data analysis technique that focuses on

modeling and knowledge discovery for predictive rather than purely
descriptive purposes, while business intelligence covers data analysis that
relies heavily on aggregation, focusing mainly on business information. In
statistical applications, data analysis can be divided into descriptive
statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA), and confirmatory data
analysis (CDA).

EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data while CDA focuses on
confirming or falsifying existing hypotheses. Predictive analytics focuses on
application of statistical models for predictive forecasting or classification,
while text analytics applies statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques to
extract and classify information from textual sources, a species
of unstructured data. All of the above are varieties of data analysis.
Discussion