MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION – II

TOPICS TO BE COVERED
– Concrete
– Introduction
– Classification
– Production of concrete
– Water & cement Ratio as per application
– Strength and testing of concrete
– Qualities of good concrete
– Joints in concrete and proportioning
– Non-Destructive Testing
– Rheology
– Determination of Cement content in hardened
Portland Cement concrete
– Admixture
– Concrete Mix Design, principles of Mix Design
CONCRETE:

Concrete a composite man-made material, is the most widely used building material
in the construction industry. It consists of a rationally chosen mixture of binding
material such as
1. lime or cement
2. well graded fine and coarse aggregates
3. Water
4. Admixtures (to produce concrete with special properties).

In a concrete mix, cement and water form a paste or matrix which in addition to
filling the voids of the fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse aggregates
and binds them together. The matrix is usually 22-34% of the total volume.
Freshly mixed concrete before set is known as wet or green concrete whereas after
setting and hardening it is known as set or hardened concrete.
The moulded concrete mix after sufficient curing becomes hard like stone due to
chemical action between the water and binding material.
Most of the ancient structures and historical buildings had been constructed with
lime concrete. With the advent of cement, the use of lime concrete has been
confined to making bases for concrete foundations and roof terracing. The major
factors responsible for wide usage of cement-concrete are mouldability, early
hardening, high early compressive strength, development of desired properties
with admixtures to be used in adverse situations, suitability for guniting, pump
ability and durability.

The reason for its extensive use in the construction of almost all civil engineering
works is that the properties can be controlled within a wide range by using
appropriate ingredients and by special mechanical, physical and chemical
processing techniques.

Buildings—from single storey to multi-storey, bridges, piers, dams, weirs, retaining

walls, liquid retaining structures, reservoirs chimneys, bins, silos, runways,
pavements, shells, arches, railway sleepers are but a few examples of cement
concrete applications.
CLASSIFICATION:

BASED ON CEMENTING MATERIAL:

Concretes are classified as
1. Lime concrete
2. Gypsum concrete
3. Cement concrete.

BASED ON PERSPECTIVE SPECIFICATION:

The cement concrete is specified by proportions of different ingredients,
e.g., 1 (cement) : 2 (fine aggregate) : 4 (coarse aggregate).
It is presumed that by adhering to such perspective specifications satisfactory
performance may be achieved.
CLASSIFICATION – CONT’D:

BASED ON PERFORMANCE ORIENTED SPECIFICATION:

When the concrete properties such as strength, water-cement ratio, compaction
factor, slump, etc., are specified the concrete may be classified as designed-mix
concrete.

BASED ON BULK DENSITY:

On the basis of density, concrete is classified as super heavy (over 2500 kg/m 3),
dense (1800-2500 kg/m3), light weight (500–1800 kg/m3) and extra light weight
concrete (below 500 kg/m3).

BASED ON PLACE OF CASTING:

When concrete is made and placed in position at the site it is known as in-situ
concrete and when used as a material for making prefabricated units in a factory is
known as precast concrete.
PRODUCTION:

A good quality concrete is essentially a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and

fine aggregates and water which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical
action between the cement and water. Each of the four constituents has a specific
function.
_ The coarser aggregate acts as a filler.
_ The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate.
_ The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the
mixture is aided by the cement paste, fines and nowadays, increasingly by the
use of admixtures.
Most of the properties of the hardened concrete depend on the care exercised at
every stage of the manufacture of concrete. A rational proportioning of the
ingredients of concrete is the essence of the mix design.
PRODUCTION – CONT’D:
The stages of concrete production are:

1. Batching or measurement of materials

2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing
BATCHING OR MEASUREMENT OF MATERIALS
For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients
should be used. The aggregates, cement and water should be measured with an
accuracy of ± 3 per cent of batch quantity and the admixtures by 5 per cent of
the batch quantity.

_ VOLUME BATCHING
Volume batching is generally recommended for
small jobs only. The amount of each solid ingredient
is measured by loose volume using standard box
known as gauge box.

_ WEIGH BATCHING
For all important works weigh batching is used.
The weighing may also be done by ordinary
platform weighing machines. For large size works
weigh bucket equipment are used. The weigh
buckets are fedfrom hoppers and these discharge
the ingredients by gravity, straight into the mixer.
Sr. Weigh Batching Volumetric Batching
No.
01. The concrete ingredients are batched/ proportioned The concrete ingredients are batched / proportioned
based on weight. based on volume.
02. Batching by mass is  achieved by using weigh Batching by volume achieved by using a constructed
batching machine/ plant. gauge boxes (Farmas) for proportioning the materials
according to various mix proportions and based on
the quantity of material needed per batch.
 

03.  Nominal mix is batched by mass using regularly When batching by volume is used, possible sources
maintained and well-calibrated equipment, therefore of error could lead to variation in the amount of
high degree of uniformity in proportion of  the fresh aggregate in a specific volume and errors in
and hardened state concrete can be achieved. measured volume. These errors often lead to
variations in the fresh and hardened properties of
concrete as against specified characteristics
properties.
04.  Materials batched by mass are exact in measurement Variations in quantity are very much likely for
taking cognisance of the differences in the material materials. ultimately affect strength of concrete.
properties.
05.  Water for mixing is weighed out precisely as a The volume of water required for mixing is not often
function of the weight of cement used for each mix specified. Sometime extra water is added to make
proportion. Hence uniform water-cement ratio can concrete workable.
be maintained, which plays an important role in This makes concrete non uniform and reduce the
achieving strength of concrete. strength.
06.  Each batch is weighed which makes it easy to detect Difficult to detect overruns or incorrect dosages.
overruns or incorrect dosages.
07. The slump of concrete batched by mass is higher than Slump varies from low to high.
batched by volume for same mix proportion and
water cement ratios. i.e. slump varies from medium
to very high slump.

08.  For same mix proportion, the compressive strength of For same mix proportion, the compressive strength of
concrete batched by mass is higher than that batched concrete batched by volume is lower than that
by volume at all w/c ratios and for curing ages 7 to 28 batched by mass at all w/c ratios and for curing ages 7
days. to 28 days.

09.  Admixtures are pre-weighed then held in the hoppers Admixtures are batched directly into correct mix,
ensuring rapid discharge with no impact on batch which could slow batching cycle.
cycle

10. Admixtures can be dosed at any stage of batching and Admixtures are difficult to batch at certain stages of
in multiple dumps- thereby achieving optimal the batching sequence.
performance.

11. Concrete is of uniform and consistent quality. The quality of concrete may differ because of bulkage
of fine aggregates (Sand) and therefore concrete is
not uniform and consistent..

12. More precise method. Less precise method.

13. Need skilled labours No need to required skilled labours.
14. Operation difficult. Easy to operate.
15. Speed of construction is high. Speed of construction is slower than weigh batching.

16.  Maintenance cost is high. Maintenance cost is practically nill.

17.  This method is expensive. This method is cheaper and economical.

MIXING:
The object of mixing is to make the concrete mass homogeneous and uniform in
colour and consistency. All the aggregate particles should have a coat of cement
paste and all the ingredients of the concrete should blend into a uniform mass.
The mixing is done either by hand or by machine called mixer.

_ HAND MIXING
It is used for small jobs. Hand mixing is done over an impervious floor. Measured
quantities of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are spread over the floor in
alternate layers. Then cement is poured over it and the ingredients are mixed dry
with shovel until uniformity in colour is achieved.

_ MACHINE MIXING
For quality works mixing is carried out by mixer.
Mixers can be broadly classified as batch mixers
and continuous mixers. The batch mixers
produce concrete batch by batch with time interval,
whereas continuous mixers produce concrete
continuously till plant is working. Batch mixers
are used for small and medium size works.
Continuous mixers are used for large size works,
e.g., dams.
TRANSPORTING:
Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the
loss of homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. The methods adopted for
transporting concrete depend upon the size and importance of the job, the distance
of the deposition place from the mixing place, and the nature of the terrain.

_ MORTAR PAN
_ WHEEL BARROW
_ CHUTES
_ CONVEYER BELTS
PLACING:
To achieve quality concrete it should be placed with utmost care securing the
homogeneity achieved during mixing and the avoidance of segregation in
transporting. It has been evident that a delayed placing of concrete results in a gain in
ultimate compressive strength provided the concrete can be adequately compacted.
For dry mixes in hot weather delay of half to one hour is allowed whereas for wet
mixes in cold weather it may be several hours.
The various situations in which concrete is placed are discussed below.

_ FOUNDATION
Concrete foundations for walls and columns are provided below the ground surface.
Before placing the concrete in the foundation all the loose earth, roots of trees etc.,
are removed. If the surface is found dry it is made wet so that earth does not absorb
water from concrete. On the other hand if the foundation bed is wet the water and
mud is removed and cement is sprinkled before placing concrete.
_ BEAMS, COLUMNS AND SLABS
Before placing the concrete, the forms must be examined for correct alignment. They
should be adequately rigid to withstand the weight of concrete and construction
loads without undue deformation.
COMPACTION:
After concrete is placed at the desired location, the next step in the process of
concrete production is its compaction. Compaction consolidates fresh concrete within
the moulds or frameworks and around embedded parts and reinforcement steel.
Considerable quantity of air is entrapped in concrete during its production and there
is possible partial segregation also. Both of these adversely affect the quality of
concrete.

_ HAND COMPACTION
_ COMPACTION BY VIBRATION
CURING:
Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement
and water. This chemical reaction requires moisture, favourable temperature and
time referred to as the curing period.
If the concrete is kept damp for one month, the strength is about double than that of
concrete exposed only to dry air.

_ CURING BY WATER
_ CURING BY STEAM
Advantages of low water/cement ratio:
 Increased strength
 Lower permeability
 Increased resistance to weathering
 Better bond between concrete and reinforce
 Reduced drying shrinkage and cracking
 Less volume change from wetting and drying
FINISHING:
Concrete is basically used because of its high compressive strength. However, the
finish of the ultimate product is not that pleasant. In past couple of decades efforts
have been made to develop surface finishes to give a better appearance to concrete
surfaces.
THE END