Operating

Systems:
Internals
and Design Chapter 3
Principles Process Description
and Control
Eighth Edition
By William Stallings
 Summary of Earlier
Concepts
 A computer platform  The OS was developed to
consists of a collection of provide a convenient,
hardware resources feature-rich, secure, and
consistent interface for
 Computer applications applications to use
are developed to perform
some task  We can think of the OS as
providing a uniform,
abstract representation of
 It is inefficient for resources that can be
applications to be written requested and accessed by
directly for a given
hardware platform applications
 OS Management of
Application Execution
 Resources are made available to multiple
applications
 Theprocessor is switched among multiple
applications so all will appear to be
progressing
 The processor and I/O devices can be used
efficiently
 Process Elements
 Two essential elements of a process are:

Program code
• which may be shared with other processes that are executing the
same program

A set of data associated with that code


when the processor begins to execute the program code, we refer to this
executing entity as a process
Process Elements
 While the program is executing, this process can be uniquely
characterized by a number of elements, including:

identifier

program
state priority
counter

memory I/O status accounting

context data
pointers information information
Process Control Identifier

State

Block Priority
Program counter

Memory pointers

Contains the process elements Context data

I/O status
It is possible to interrupt a running information

process and later resume execution as if Accounting

the interruption had not occurred information

Created and managed by the operating

system

Key tool that allows support for

multiple processes
Figure 3.1 Simplified Process Control Block
Process States

Trace

the behavior of an individual process by the behavior of the processor can be

listing the sequence of instructions that characterized by showing how the traces of
execute for that process the various processes are interleaved
 Address Main Memory Program Counter
0
8000
100
Dispatcher

Process 5000
Process A

Execution 8000

Process B

12000

Process C

Figure 3.2 Snapshot of Example Execution (Figure 3.4)

at Instruction Cycle 13
 5000 8000 12000
5001 8001 12001
5002 8002 12002
5003 8003 12003
5004 12004
5005 12005
5006 12006
5007 12007
5008 12008
5009 12009
5010 12010
5011 12011
(a) Trace of Process A (b) Trace of Process B (c) Trace of Process C

5000 = Starting address of program of Process A

8000 = Starting address of program of Process B
12000 = Starting address of program of Process C

Figure 3.3 Traces of Processes of Figure 3.2

 1 5000 27 12004
2 5001 28 12005
3 5002 -------------------- Timeout
4 5003 29 100
5 5004 30 101
6 5005 31 102
-------------------- Timeout 32 103
7 100 33 104
8 101 34 105
9 102 35 5006
10 103 36 5007
11 104 37 5008
12 105 38 5009
13 8000 39 5010
14 8001 40 5011
15 8002 -------------------- Timeout
16 8003 41 100
----------------I/O Request 42 101
17 100 43 102
18 101 44 103
19 102 45 104
20 103 46 105
21 104 47 12006
22 105 48 12007
23 12000 49 12008
24 12001 50 12009
25 12002 51 12010
26 12003 52 12011
-------------------- Timeout

100 = Starting address of dispatcher program

Shaded areas indicate execution of dispatcher process;

first and third columns count instruction cycles;
second and fourth columns show address of instruction being executed

Figure 3.4 Combined Trace of Processes of Figure 3.2

Two-State Process Model

Dispatch

Enter Not Exit

Running Running

Pause

(a) State transition diagram

Queue
Enter Dispatch Exit
Processor

Pause

(b) Queuing diagram

Figure 3.5 Two-State Process Model

 Dispatch

Enter Not Exit

Running Running

Pause

(a) State transition diagram

Queue
Enter Dispatch Exit
Processor

Pause

(b) Queuing diagram

Figure 3.5 Two-State Process Model

Table 3.1 Reasons for Process Creation
 Process Creation
Process Parent
spawning Child process
process
• when the OS • is the • is the new
creates a original, process
process at the creating,
explicit process
request of
another
process
 Process Termination
 There must be a means for a process to indicate its
completion
 A batch job should include a HALT instruction or an
explicit OS service call for termination
 For an interactive application, the action of the user will
indicate when the process is completed (e.g. log off,
quitting an application)
 Normal completion The process executes an OS service call to indicate that it has completed
running.

Table3.2 Time limit exceeded The process has run longer than the specified total time limit. There are a
number of possibilities for the type of time that is measured. These include total
elapsed time ("wall clock time"), amount of time spent executing, and, in the
case of an interactive process, the amount of time since the user last provided
any input.

Reasons for Memory unavailable The process requires more memory than the system can provide.

Process Bounds violation

Protection error
The process tries to access a memory location that it is not allowed to access.

The process attempts to use a resource such as a file that it is not allowed to use,

Termination Arithmetic error

or it tries to use it in an improper fashion, such as writing to a read-only file.

The process tries a prohibited computation, such as division by zero, or tries to

store numbers larger than the hardware can accommodate.

Time overrun The process has waited longer than a specified maximum for a certain event to
occur.

I/O failure An error occurs during input or output, such as inability to find a file, failure to
read or write after a specified maximum number of tries (when, for example, a
defective area is encountered on a tape), or invalid operation (such as reading
from the line printer).

Invalid instruction The process attempts to execute a nonexistent instruction (often a result of
branching into a data area and attempting to execute the data).

Privileged instruction The process attempts to use an instruction reserved for the operating system.

Data misuse A piece of data is of the wrong type or is not initialized.

Operator or OS intervention For some reason, the operator or the operating system has terminated the process
(e.g., if a deadlock exists).

Parent termination When a parent terminates, the operating system may automatically terminate all
of the offspring of that parent.

(Table is located on page 115 Parent request A parent process typically has the authority to terminate any of its offspring.
in the textbook)
Five-State Process Model

Dispatch
Admit Release
New Ready Running Exit
Timeout

Event
Occurs Event
Wait

Blocked

Figure 3.6 Five-State Process Model

 Process A

Process B

Process C

Dispatcher

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

= Running = Ready = Blocked

Figure 3.7 Process States for Trace of Figure 3.4

 Ready Queue Release
Admit Dispatch
Processor

Timeout

Blocked Queue
Event Event Wait
Occurs
(a) Single blocked queue

Ready Queue Release

Admit Dispatch
Processor

Timeout

Event 1 Queue
Event 1 Event 1 Wait
Occurs

Event 2 Queue
Event 2 Event 2 Wait
Occurs

Event n Queue
Event n Event n Wait
Occurs

(b) Multiple blocked queues

Figure 3.8 Queuing Model for Figure 3.6

 Suspended Processes
 Swapping
 involves moving part of all of a process from main memory to disk
 when none of the processes in main memory is in the Ready state, the OS
swaps one of the blocked processes out on to disk into a suspend queue
 Admit Dispatch
Release
New Ready Running Exit
Timeout

Occurs
Event
Suspend
Suspend Blocked

(a) With One Suspend State

New

Activate Dispatch
Ready/ Release
Suspend Ready Running Exit
Suspend Timeout
Occurs

Occurs
Event

Event
Activate
Blocked/
Suspend
Blocked
Suspend

(b) With Two Suspend States

Figure 3.9 Process State Transition Diagram with Suspend States

Ad mi t Di s patc h
R eleas e
New Re ady Ru nn in g E xit
Ti me out
Ocurs
Event

Su spe nd
S uspe nd B l ock ed

(a) Wi th One Su spe nd St ate

Ne w

A cti vate Di s patc h

Re ady/ R eleas e
Susp en d Re ady Ru nn in g E xit
S usp end Ti me out
Ocurs

Ocurs
Event

Event

A cti vate
B loc ke d /
B l ock ed
Su sp e n d
S usp end

(b ) Wi th T wo S u sp en d Stat es

F igur e 3.9 P roces s S tate Tran si tion D iagram w ith S us p en d S tate s

 Admit Dispatch
Release
New Ready Running Exit
Timeout

Occurs
Event
Suspend
Suspend Blocked

(a) With One Suspend State

New

Activate Dispatch
Ready/ Release
Suspend Ready Running Exit
Suspend Timeout
Occurs

Occurs
Event

Event

Activate
Blocked/
Suspend
Blocked
Suspend

(b) With Two Suspend States

Figure 3.9 Process State Transition Diagram with Suspend States

 Characteristics of a
Suspended Process
 The process is not  The process may or may
immediately available for not be waiting on an
execution event

 The process was placed  The process may not be

in a suspended state by an removed from this state
agent: either itself, a until the agent explicitly
parent process, or the OS, orders the removal
for the purpose of
preventing its execution
Table 3.3 Reasons for Process Suspension
 P1 P2 Pn
Virtual
Memory

Computer
Resources
Main
Processor I/O I/O I/O
Memory

Figure 3.10 Processes and Resources (resource allocation at one snapshot in time)
 Process
Image
Memory Tables
Process
Memory 1

Devices I/O Tables

Files

Processes File Tables

Primary Process Table

Process 1

Process 2
Process
Process 3 Image
Process
n

Process n

Figure 3.11 General Structure of Operating System Control Tables

Memory Tables
 Used to keep track of both
main (real) and secondary
Must
(virtual) memory include:
allocation of main memory to
 Processes are maintained on processes
secondary memory using
some sort of virtual memory allocation of secondary memory
to processes
or simple swapping
mechanism protection attributes of blocks of
main or virtual memory

information needed to manage

virtual memory
If an I/O operation is in process
progress, the OS needs to assigned to a particular
know: device may be available or
• the status of the I/O operation 
At any given time, an I/O
• the location in main memory being
used as the source or destination of
system
the I/O transfer channels of the computer
the I/O devices and
Used by the OS to manage 
I/O Tables
File Tables
These tables provide information about:

• existence of files
• location on secondary memory
• current status
• other attributes

 Information may be maintained and used by a file management system

 in which case the OS has little or no knowledge of files

 In other operating systems, much of the detail of file management is

managed by the OS itself
Process Tables
 Must be maintained to manage processes
 There must be some reference to memory, I/O,
and files, directly or indirectly
 Thetables themselves must be accessible by the
OS and therefore are subject to memory
management
Process Control Structures

• where the process

To manage is located
and control • the attributes of
a process the process that
are necessary for
the OS its management
must know:
Process Control Structures
Process Location Process Attributes
 A process must include a program  Each process has associated with
or set of programs to be executed it a number of attributes that are
used by the OS for process control
 A process will consist of at least
sufficient memory to hold the  The collection of program, data,
programs and data of that process stack, and attributes is referred to
as the process image
 The execution of a program
typically involves a stack that is  Process image location will
used to keep track of procedure depend on the memory
calls and parameter passing management scheme being used
between procedures
 Table 3.4
Typical Elements of a Process Image

User Data
The modifiable part of the user space. May include program data, a user stack area, and
programs that may be modified.

User Program
The program to be executed.

Stack
Each process has one or more last-in-first-out (LIFO) stacks associated with it. A stack is
used to store parameters and calling addresses for procedure and system calls.

Process Control Block

Data needed by the OS to control the process (see Table 3.5).
 Process Identification
Table 3.5
Identifiers
Numeric identifiers that may be stored with the process control block include Typical
•Identifier of this process
•Identifier of the process that created this process (parent process)
•User identifier Elements
Processor State Information of a
User-Visible Registers
A user-visible register is one that may be referenced by means of the machine language that the
Process
processor executes while in user mode. Typically, there are from 8 to 32 of these registers, although
some RISC implementations have over 100. Control
Control and Status Registers Block
These are a variety of processor registers that are employed to control the operation of the processor.
These include (page 1 of 2)
•Program counter: Contains the address of the next instruction to be fetched
•Condition codes: Result of the most recent arithmetic or logical operation (e.g., sign, zero, carry,
equal, overflow)
•Status information: Includes interrupt enabled/disabled flags, execution mode

Stack Pointers
Each process has one or more last-in-first-out (LIFO) system stacks associated with it. A stack is used
to store parameters and calling addresses for procedure and system calls. The stack pointer points to
(Table is located
the top of the stack. on page 129 in the
textbook)
 Process Control Information

Scheduling and State Information

This is information that is needed by the operating system to perform its scheduling function. Typical
items of information:
•Process state: Defines the readiness of the process to be scheduled for execution (e.g., running,
ready, waiting, halted).
•Priority: One or more fields may be used to describe the scheduling priority of the process. In
some systems, several values are required (e.g., default, current, highest-allowable) Table 3.5
•Scheduling-related information: This will depend on the scheduling algorithm used. Examples
are the amount of time that the process has been waiting and the amount of time that the process
executed the last time it was running.
•Event: Identity of event the process is awaiting before it can be resumed.
Typical
Elements of a
Data Structuring
A process may be linked to other process in a queue, ring, or some other structure. For example, all
processes in a waiting state for a particular priority level may be linked in a queue. A process may
exhibit a parent-child (creator-created) relationship with another process. The process control block
may contain pointers to other processes to support these structures.
Process Control
Interprocess Communication
Various flags, signals, and messages may be associated with communication between two
independent processes. Some or all of this information may be maintained in the process control
block.
Block
Process Privileges (page 2 of 2)
Processes are granted privileges in terms of the memory that may be accessed and the types of
instructions that may be executed. In addition, privileges may apply to the use of system utilities and
services.

Memory Management
This section may include pointers to segment and/or page tables that describe the virtual memory
assigned to this process.

Resource Ownership and Utilization

Resources controlled by the process may be indicated, such as opened files. A history of utilization of
the processor or other resources may also be included; this information may be needed by the (Table is located
scheduler. on page 129 in the textbook)
 Process Identification
 Memory tables may be organized
 Each process is assigned a unique to provide a map of main memory
numeric identifier with an indication of which process
 otherwise there must be a is assigned to each region
mapping that allows the OS to  similar references will appear in
locate the appropriate tables I/O and file tables
based on the process identifier
 When processes communicate with
 Many of the tables controlled by one another, the process identifier
the OS may use process identifiers informs the OS of the destination
to cross-reference process tables of a particular communication

 When processes are allowed to

create other processes, identifiers
indicate the parent and
descendents of each process
 Processor State Information

pointers Progr ●
contains condition
am
• stack
Consists codes plus other
of the status information
registers
contents status status ●
EFLAGS register is
of an example of a
processor
• control and
word PSW used by any
registers registers
• user-visible (PSW OS running on an
x86 processor
)
31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
I
V V
I A V R N O O D I T S Z A P C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I I 0 0 0 1
D C M F T P F F F F F F F F F
P F
L

X ID = Identification flag C DF = Direction flag

X VIP = Virtual interrupt pending X IF = Interrupt enable flag
X VIF = Virtual interrupt flag X TF = Trap flag
X AC = Alignment check S SF = Sign flag
X VM = Virtual 8086 mode S ZF = Zero flag
X RF = Resume flag S AF = Auxiliary carry flag
X NT = Nested task flag S PF = Parity flag
X IOPL = I/O privilege level S CF = Carry flag
S OF = Overflow flag

S Indicates a Status Flag

C Indicates a Control Flag
X Indicates a System Flag
Shaded bits are reserved

Figure 3.12 x86 EFLAGS Register

 Status Flags (condition codes)
AF (Auxiliary carry flag)
Represents carrying or borrowing between half-bytes of an 8-bit arithmetic or logic operation using the
AL register.
CF (Carry flag)

Table 3.6 Indicates carrying out or borrowing into the leftmost bit position following an arithmetic operation. Also
modified by some of the shift and rotate operations.
OF (Overflow flag)
Indicates an arithmetic overflow after an addition or subtraction.
PF (Parity flag)
Parity of the result of an arithmetic or logic operation. 1 indicates even parity; 0 indicates odd parity.
SF (Sign flag)

Pentium Indicates the sign of the result of an arithmetic or logic operation.

ZF (Zero flag)
Indicates that the result of an arithmetic or logic operation is 0.

Control Flag
DF (Direction flag)
Determines whether string processing instructions increment or decrement the 16-bit half-registers SI and

EFLAGS DI (for 16-bit operations) or the 32-bit registers ESI and EDI (for 32-bit operations).

System Flags (should not be modified by application programs)

AC (Alignment check)
Set if a word or doubleword is addressed on a nonword or nondoubleword boundary.
ID (Identification flag)
If this bit can be set and cleared, this processor supports the CPUID instruction. This instruction provides

Register information about the vendor, family, and model.

RF (Resume flag)
Allows the programmer to disable debug exceptions so that the instruction can be restarted after a debug
exception without immediately causing another debug exception.
IOPL (I/O privilege level)
When set, causes the processor to generate an exception on all accesses to I/O devices during protected

Bits
mode operation.
IF (Interrupt enable flag)
When set, the processor will recognize external interrupts.
TF (Trap flag)
When set, causes an interrupt after the execution of each instruction. This is used for debugging.
NT (Nested task flag)
Indicates that the current task is nested within another task in protected mode operation.
VM (Virtual 8086 mode)
Allows the programmer to enable or disable virtual 8086 mode, which determines whether the processor
runs as an 8086 machine.
VIP (Virtual interrupt pending)
Used in virtual 8086 mode to indicate that one or more interrupts are awaiting service.
VIF (Virtual interrupt flag)
Used in virtual 8086 mode instead of IF.
(Table is located on page 131 in the textbook)
Process Control
Information
 The additional information needed
by the OS to control and
coordinate the various active
processes
 Process Process Process
Identification Identification Identification
Process
Processor State Processor State Processor State Control
Information Information Information Block
Process Control Process Control Process Control
Information Information Information

User Stack User Stack User Stack

Private User Private User Private User

Address Space Address Space Address Space
(Programs, Data) (Programs, Data) (Programs, Data)

Shared Address Shared Address Shared Address

Space Space Space

Process 1 Process 2 Process n

Figure 3.13 User Processes in Virtual Memory

 Process
Control Block
Running

Ready

Blocked

Figure 3.14 Process List Structures

Role of the
Process Control Block
 The most important data structure in an OS
 contains all of the information about a process that is needed by the OS
 blocks are read and/or modified by virtually every module in the OS
 defines the state of the OS

 Difficulty is not access, but protection

 a bug in a single routine could damage process control blocks, which could
destroy the system’s ability to manage the affected processes
 a design change in the structure or semantics of the process control block
could affect a number of modules in the OS
 Modes of Execution
User Mode System Mode

 less-privileged mode  more-privileged mode

 user programs typically  also referred to as
execute in this mode control mode or kernel
mode
 kernel of the operating
system
 Process Management

•Process creation and termination

Table 3.7 •Process scheduling and dispatching
•Process switching
•Process synchronization and support for interprocess communication
Typical •Management of process control blocks

Functions Memory Management

of an •Allocation of address space to processes

•Swapping
Operating •Page and segment management
System I/O Management

Kernel •Buffer management

•Allocation of I/O channels and devices to processes

Support Functions

•Interrupt handling
•Accounting
•Monitoring
Process Creation
 Once the OS decides to create a new process it:
assigns a unique process identifier to the new
process

allocates space for the process

initializes the process control block

sets the appropriate linkages

creates or expands other data structures

 Table 3.8
Mechanisms for Interrupting the
Execution of a Process

Mechanism Cause Use

Interrupt External to the execution of the Reaction to an asynchronous

current instruction external event

Trap Associated with the execution of Handling of an error or an

the current instruction exception condition

Supervisor call Explicit request Call to an operating system

function
 System Interrupts
Interrupt Trap
 Due to some sort of event that  An error or exception condition
is external to and independent generated within the currently
of the currently running process running process
 clock interrupt  OS determines if the condition
 I/O interrupt is fatal
 memory fault  moved to the Exit state and
 Time slice a process switch occurs
 the maximum amount of  action will depend on the
time that a process can nature of the error
execute before being
interrupted
Mode Switching

If no interrupts are If an interrupt is pending

pending the processor: the processor:

proceeds to the fetch stage and fetches

sets the program counter to the starting
the next instruction of the current
address of an interrupt handler program
program in the current process

switches from user mode to kernel mode

so that the interrupt processing code
may include privileged instructions
 Change of Process State
 The steps in a
update the process move the process
full process save the context of control block of the control block of this
the processor
switch are: process currently in process to the
the Running state appropriate queue

If the currently running process is to be moved to another

state (Ready, Blocked, etc.), then the OS must make select another
substantial changes in its environment process for
execution

restore the context of

the processor to that
which existed at the
time the selected update memory update the process
process was last management data control block of the
switched out structures process selected
 P1 P2 Pn

Execution
Kernel

(a) Separate kernel

of the P1
OS
Func-
P2
OS
Func-
Pn
OS
Func-

Operating System
tions tions tions

Process Switching Functions

(b) OS functions execute within user processes

P1 P2 Pn OS1 OSk

Process Switching Functions

(c) OS functions execute as separate processes

Figure 3.15 Relationship Between Operating

System and User Processes
 Process
Identification

Processor State Process Control

Execution Within
Information Block

Process Control
Information

User Processes User Stack

Private User
Address Space
(Programs, Data)

Kernel Stack

Shared Address
Space

Figure 3.16 Process Image: Operating System

Executes Within User Space
 Unix SVR4
 Uses the model where most of the OS executes within the environment of
a user process
 System processes run in kernel mode
 executes operating system code to perform administrative and housekeeping
functions

 User Processes
 operate in user mode to execute user programs and utilities
 operate in kernel mode to execute instructions that belong to the kernel
 enter kernel mode by issuing a system call, when an exception is generated, or
when an interrupt occurs
Table 3.9 UNIX Process States
 fork

Created
Preempted

return enough not enough memory

to user memory (swapping system only)

User
Running preempt
swap out
return Ready to Run Ready to Run
reschedule
In Memory Swapped
process swap in
system call,
interrupt Kernel
Running

sleep wakeup wakeup

interrupt,
interrupt return exit

Asleep in swap out Sleep,

Zombie
Memory Swapped

Figure 3.17 UNIX Process State Transition Diagram

 User-Level Context

Process text Executable machine instructions of the program

Process data Data accessible by the program of this process
Table User stack Contains the arguments, local variables, and pointers for functions
executing in user mode
Shared memory Memory shared with other processes, used for interprocess
communication
3.10 Register Context

Program counter Address of next instruction to be executed; may be in kernel or

UNIX Processor status register
user memory space of this process
Contains the hardware status at the time of preemption; contents
and format are hardware dependent
Stack pointer Points to the top of the kernel or user stack, depending on the mode
Process of operation at the time or preemption
General-purpose registers Hardware dependent
System-Level Context
Image Process table entry Defines state of a process; this information is always accessible to
the operating system
U (user) area Process control information that needs to be accessed only in the
context of the process
Per process region table Defines the mapping from virtual to physical addresses; also
contains a permission field that indicates the type of access
(Table is located on allowed the process: read-only, read-write, or read-execute
page 144 in the Kernel stack Contains the stack frame of kernel procedures as the process
textbook) executes in kernel mode
 Process status Current state of process.

Pointers To U area and process memory area (text, data, stack).

Table 3.11 Process size Enables the operating system to know how much space to allocate
the process.

UNIX User identifiers The real user ID identifies the user who is responsible for the
running process. The effective user ID may be used by a process
to gain temporary privileges associated with a particular program;
while that program is being executed as part of the process, the

Process Process identifiers

process operates with the effective user ID.

ID of this process; ID of parent process. These are set up when the

process enters the Created state during the fork system call.

Table Event descriptor Valid when a process is in a sleeping state; when the event occurs,
the process is transferred to a ready-to-run state.

Entry
Priority Used for process scheduling.

Signal Enumerates signals sent to a process but not yet handled.

Timers Include process execution time, kernel resource utilization, and

user-set timer used to send alarm signal to a process.

P_link Pointer to the next link in the ready queue (valid if process is ready
to execute).

Memory status Indicates whether process image is in main memory or swapped

out. If it is in memory, this field also indicates whether it may be
(Table is located on page 145 in the swapped out or is temporarily locked into main memory.
textbook)
Table 3.12
UNIX U Area

(Table is located on page 146 in the

textbook)
• Returns the ID number of the child to the parent process, and a 0 6
value to the child process
• Assigns the child process to the Ready to Run state 5
Mode, to:
• Increments counters for any files owned by the parent, to reflect 4
that an additional process now also owns those files
OS, in Kernel
This causes the 
• Make a copy of the process image of the parent, with the 3
exception of any shared memory fork( )
2
system call,
• Assign a unique process ID to the child process the kernel
is by means of
• Allocate a slot in the process table for the new process 1 Process creation 
Process Creation
After Creation
 After creating the process the Kernel can do one of the
following, as part of the dispatcher routine:
 stay in the parent process
 transfer control to the child process
 transfer control to another process
 Summary
 What is a process?  Process control
 Background  Modes of execution
 Processes and process control blocks  Process creation
 Process switching
 Process states
 Two-state process model  Execution of the operating system
 Creation and termination  Nonprocess kernel
 Five-state model
 Execution within user processes
 Suspended processes
 Process-based operating system

 UNIX SVR4 process management

 Process description
 Process states
 Operating system control structures
 Process description
 Process control structures
 Process control