Date: 2nd May, 2017

Chemistry (Part - I)

Lecture # 01

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Department of Electrical Engineering ( SEC 1 , 11 & 111)

MEHRAN UET, JAMSHORO.

Engr. Aysha Rasheed

Email: [email protected]

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2.1 DISCHARGE TUBE EXPERIMENT

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ATOM AND ITS STRUCTURE:

What is an Atom ?
o The smallest unit of an
element.
o Consists of a central
nucleus surrounded by one
or more electrons.

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NUCLEUS :

What is the Nucleus ?

o The central part of an atom.
o Composed of protons and
neutrons.
o Contains most of an atom's
mass.

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PROTON:

What is Proton ?
o Positively charged
particle.

o Found within an atomic

nucleus.

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NEUTRON :

What is Neutron ?
o Uncharged particle.

o Found within an atomic

nucleus.

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Electron :

What is Electron ?
o Negatively charged
particle.

o Located in shells that

surround an atom's
nucleus.
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 Modern Atomic Theory :

 All matter is composed of atoms

 Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed in ordinary

chemical reactions. However, these changes CAN occur in nuclear
reactions!

Atoms of an element have a characteristic average mass which is

unique to that element.

Atoms of any one element differ in properties from atoms of another

element
Discovery of the Electron (Cathode Rays):

In 1897, J.J. Thomson used a cathode

ray tube to deduce the presence of a
negatively charged particle.

Cathode ray tubes pass electricity

through a gas that is contained at
a very low pressure.
 Properties Of Cathode Rays ::

 Cathode rays have identical properties regardless of the element

used to produce them. All elements must contain identically
charged electrons.

Atoms are neutral, so there must be positive particles in the atom

to balance the negative charge of the electrons

 Electrons have so little mass that atoms must contain other

particles that account for most of the mass
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiments:

 Alpha () particles are helium nuclei

 Particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold foil
 Particle hits on the detecting screen (film) are recorded
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiments:

Rutherford’s Findings :
 Most of the particles passed right through
 A few particles were deflected
 VERY FEW were greatly deflected

Conclusions:
 The nucleus is small
 The nucleus is dense
 The nucleus is positively charged
Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model:

 If electrons have to revolve around the nucleus, they will spend

energy and that too against the strong force of attraction from the
nucleus, a lot of energy will be spent by the electrons and
eventually, they will lose all their energy and will fall into the
nucleus so the stability of atom is not explained.

 If electrons continuously revolve around the ‘nucleus, the type of

spectrum expected is a continuous spectrum. But in reality, what
we see is a line spectrum.
Atomic Particles :
Atomic Number:

Atomic number (Z) of an

element is the number of
protons in the nucleus of
each atom of that
element.
Mass Number:

Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

of an isotope.
Mass # = p+ + n0

18 8 8 18
Arsenic 75 33 75
Phosphorus 16 15 31
Isotopes :

Isotopes are atoms of

the same element
having different
masses due to
varying numbers of
neutrons.
Atomic Mass :

Atomic mass is the

average of all the
naturally occurring
isotopes of that
element.

Carbon = 12.011
Discovery Of Proton :

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Discovery Of Proton :

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Discovery Of Proton :

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Discovery Of Proton :

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Discovery Of Proton :

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Discovery Of Neutron :

Sir James Chadwick :

 Sir James Chadwick (20
October 1891 – 24 July 1974) was
an English physicist who was
awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in
Physics for his discovery of the
neutron in 1932. 24
Discovery Of Neutron :

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Discovery Of Neutron :

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Milliken's Oil Drop Experiment To find charge on Electron :

The Millikens Oil Drop Experiment was an experiment performed by

Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in 1909 to measure the
charge of an electron.
This experiment proved to be very crucial in the physics community.
In the experiment, Milliken allowed charged tiny oil droplets to pass
through a hole into an electric field.
By varying the strength of electric field the charge over an oil droplet
was calculated, which always came as an integral value of ‘e.’ 27
Milliken's Oil Drop Experiment To find charge on Electron :

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Apparatus Of Milliken's Oil Drop Experiment :

The apparatus of the experiment was constructed by Milliken and

Fletcher. It incorporated two metal plates held at a distance by an
insulated rod. There were four holes in the plate, out of which three
were there to allow light to pass through them and one was there to
allow viewing through the microscope.
Ordinary oil wasn’t used for the experiment as it would evaporate
by the heat of light and so could cause error in Millikens Oil Drop
Experiment. So, the oil that is generally used in vacuum apparatus
which is of low vapour pressure was used.
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 Procedure Of Milliken's Oil Drop Experiment :

Oil is passed through the atomizer from where it came in the form of
tiny droplets. The pass the droplets through the holes present in upper
plate of the apparatus.
The downward motions of droplets are observed through a microscope
and the mass of oil droplets, then measure their terminal velocity.
The air inside the chamber is ionized by passing a beam of X-rays
through it. The electrical charge on these oil droplets are acquired by
collisions with gaseous ions produced by ionization of air. 30
Procedure Of Milliken's Oil Drop Experiment :

The electric field is setup between the two plates and so the motion
of charged oil droplets can be affected by the electric field.
Gravity attracts the oil in downward direction and electric field
pushes the charge upward. The strength of the electric field is
regulated so that the oil droplet reaches an equilibrium position with
gravity.
The charge over droplet is calculated at equilibrium, which is
dependent on the strength of electric field and mass of droplet. 31
Conclusion Of Milliken's Oil Drop Experiment :

The charge over any oil droplet is always an integral

value of e (1.6 x 10-19). Hence the conclusion
of  Millikens Oil Drop Experiment is that the charge
is said to be quantized, i.e. the charge on any particle
will always be an integral multiple of e.

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Charge to Mass (e/m) Ratio of an Electron :

In the nineteenth century, J.J Thomson proposed Thomson’s

Atomic Model discovered the electron to mark an inception to
the world of subatomic particles.
Once the electron was discovered, he continued his experiments
to calculate the charge and the mass of the electron.
With the help of his experiments, he derived a formula for the
calculation of charge to mass ratio of the electron. 33
Experimental setup for the determination of charge to mass
ratio of electron:

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 Experimental setup for the determination of charge to mass
ratio of electron:
While carrying out discharge tube experiment, Thomson observed that the
particles of the cathode deviate from their path. He noticed the amount of
deviation in the presence of electrical or magnetic field depends on various related
parameters. They are:

Particles with a greater magnitude of the charge experienced greater interaction

with the electric or magnetic field. Thus, they exhibited a greater deflection.

Lighter particle experienced greater deflection. Thus, deflection is inversely

proportional to the mass of the particle.

Deflection of the particle from their path is directly proportional to the strength 35

of the electrical and the magnetic field present.

Charge to Mass (e/m) Ratio of an Electron : :

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2.2 BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL AND ITS
APPLICATIONS

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 Bohr’s Atomic Theory :
 Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came into
existence with the modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom.
 Rutherford’s model introduced the nuclear model of an atom, in which he
explained that a nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.

 Bohr modified this atomic structure model by explaining that electrons move in
fixed orbital’s (shells) and not anywhere in between.

 Each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy level. Rutherford basically explained
nucleus of an atom and Bohr modified that model into electrons and their
energy levels.38
 Bohr’s Atomic Theory :

 Bohr’s model consists of a small

nucleus (positively charged)
surrounded by negative electrons
moving around the nucleus in orbits.

 Bohr found that an electron located

away from the nucleus has more
energy, and electrons close to the
nucleus have less energy.
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 Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Model :
 In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve
around the positively charged nucleus in a definite
circular path called as orbits or shells.
 Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these
circular orbits are known as orbital shells.

 The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1,

2, 3…) known as the quantum number. This range of
quantum number starts from nucleus side with n=1
having the lowest energy level. The orbits n=1, 2, 3,
4… are assigned as K, L, M, N…. shells and when an
electron attains the lowest energy level it is said to be 40

in the ground state.

 Postulate of Bohr’s Atomic Model :

 The electrons in an atom move from a lower

energy level to a higher energy level by
gaining the required energy and an electron
moves from a higher energy level to lower
energy level by losing energy.

 Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and

these circular orbits are known as orbital
shells.

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 Limitations of Bohr’s Model of an Atom :

 Bohr’s model of an atom failed to explain the Zeeman Effect (effect of magnetic
field on the spectra of atoms).

 It also failed to explain the Stark effect (effect of electric field on the spectra of
atoms).

 It violates the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

 It could not explain the spectra obtained from larger atoms. 42

Derivation of radius and energy of revolving electron in nth orbit :

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Derivation of radius and energy of revolving electron in nth orbit :

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Derivation of radius and energy of revolving electron in nth orbit :

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Derivation of radius and energy of revolving electron in nth orbit :

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Derivation of Frequency & Wave Number of Photon By Bohr’s Theory :

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 Hydrogen Spectrum:

Introduction :
Electrons in an atom or a molecule absorb energy and get excited, they jump
from a lower energy level to a higher energy level and they emit radiation when
they come back to their original states.
This phenomenon accounts for the emission spectrum through hydrogen too,
better known as the Hydrogen Emission Spectrum.

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What is Hydrogen spectrum?

 The hydrogen spectrum is an important piece of evidence to show the

quantized electronic structure of an atom.

 The hydrogen atoms of the molecule dissociate as soon as an electric

discharge is passed through a gaseous hydrogen molecule.

 It results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation initiated by the

energetically excited hydrogen atoms.

 The hydrogen emission spectrum comprises radiation of discrete frequencies.

These series of radiation are named after the scientists who discovered them.
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Hydrogen Spectrum Wavelength :

 When a hydrogen atom absorbs a photon, it causes the electron to experience

a transition to a higher energy level, for example, n = 1,  n = 2.
 When a photon is emitted through a hydrogen atom, the electron undergoes a
transition from a higher energy level to a lower,
 for example, n = 3, n = 2.
 During this transition from a higher level to a lower level, there is the
transmission of light occurs.
 The quantized energy levels of the atoms, cause the spectrum to comprise
wavelengths that reflect the differences in these energy levels.
 For example, the line at 656 nm corresponds to the transition n = 3
 n = 2.
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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

 Transition from the first shell to any

other shell – Lyman series
 Transition from the second shell to any
other shell – Balmer series
 Transition from the third shell to any
other shell – Paschen series
 Transition from the fourth shell to any
other shell – Bracket series
 Transition from the fifth shell to any
other shell – Pfund series
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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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Hydrogen Spectrum Series (Hydrogen Transition) :

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2.3 PLANK'S QUANTUM THEORY

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2.4 QUANTUM NUMBERS

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 Planck’s Quantum Theory :
According to Planck’s quantum theory,
1.Different atoms and molecules
can emit or absorb energy in
discrete quantities only. The
smallest amount of energy that can
be emitted or absorbed in the form
of electromagnetic radiation is
known as quantum.
2.The energy of the radiation
absorbed or emitted is directly
proportional to the frequency of the
radiation. 64
Planck’s Quantum Theory :

Meanwhile, the energy of radiation is expressed in terms of frequency as,

E=hν
Where,
E = energy of the radiation
h = Planck’s constant (6.626×10–34 J.s)
ν= Frequency of radiation

Planck has also concluded that

•These were only an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation.
• They had nothing to do with the physical reality of the radiation itself. Later in the year 1905,
famous German physicist, Albert Einstein also reinterpreted Planck’s theory to further explain
photoelectric effect.
•He was of the opinion that if some source of light was focused on certain materials, they can
eject electrons from the material.
•Basically, Planck’s work led Einstein in determining that light exists in discrete quanta of energy,
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or photons.
THE END !!!

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