Abstract Algebra

抽象代数
华东师范大学计算机系 石东昱 [email protected]

06:45:39 AM
What
- What is abstract? (“ 抽象”是什么意思 )

- What is abstract algebra about? ( 抽象代数是关于

什么的 )
E.g. plus: natural number, integers, rational, real,
complex, scalar-vector-matrix-tensor, digit,
time(hh:mm:ss) …

06:45:39 AM
Why
Axiomatization and formalization

E.g in computer science.

- computer programming, classes ( 程序设计，类 )
- cryptography ( 密码学 )
- advances in AI ( 人工智能进展 )
…

06:45:39 AM
How
- Reading books, trying to induce the results in
the book by yourself
- Doing exercises, taking quizzes in class
40%
- Examination
60%
06:45:39 AM
Textbooks & references
"A First Course in Abstract Algebra (Third Edition)", Joseph J.
Rotman, Pearson ， 2005 (main)
"Abstract Algebra: Theory and Applications", Thomas W.
Judson, Orthogonal Publishing L3C, 2016 (complementary)
References ：
《离散数学》第 3 版，章炯民，陶增乐，华东师范大学出版社， 2009 年
《应用近世代数》第 3 版，胡冠章，王殿军， 清华大学出版社， 2006 年

06:45:39 AM
Notations
N : the set of natural numbers, INCLUDING 0.
Z : the set of integers.
Z- | Z+ : negative | positive integers.
Q : the set of rational numbers. Q- | Q+
R : the set of real numbers. R- | R+
C : the set of complex numbers.

06:45:39 AM
Inductive reasoning 归纳推理
the assertion ( 断言 ) that a frequently observed
phenomenon will always occur.
E.g.
- 太阳每天从东边升起；
- 物体间的引力大小总是与它们的质量成正比，与它们距离的平方成反比；
- 光速在真空中是恒定的，且没有任何物质的速度超过光速；
- 自然环境一直在淘汰和进化生物物种；
……

06:45:39 AM
Inductive reasoning 归纳推理
The process of inductive reasoning 归纳推理过程：
collecting evidence ( 收集证据 ) -> making assertion ( 产生结论 - 断
言)
( 归纳推理是自然科学研究的基本方法之一 )

question ：
Is inductive reasoning fully reliable ( 归纳推理是否完全可靠 )?

06:45:39 AM
Inductive reasoning 归纳推理
Perfect square: 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, ……
Conjecture( 猜想 ):
S(n)=991n2+1 is not perfect square for any integer n>0.

Evidence( 证据 ):
n=1,2,3,4,5,……,1010,……,1020,……
All TRUE until
n= 12, 055, 735, 790, 331, 359, 447, 442, 538, 767 ≈ 1.2 ×10 28

06:45:39 AM
Inductive reasoning 归纳推理
The most generous estimate of the age of the Earth is 10
billion years (4 billion most accepted), or 3.65 ×1012 days,
3.15 ×1017 seconds,
which means:
The EVIDENCE of “S(n) is not a perfect square” is much
stronger than “the sun rises every morning”.
However, the assertion is not correct.

06:45:39 AM
Mathematical induction 数学归纳
Least Integer Axiom ( 最小数公理 )

There is a smallest integer in every nonempty subset C of

the natural numbers N .

对自然数的任何非空集合，都存在一个最小的数。

06:45:39 AM
Mathematical induction 数学归纳
Mathematical Induction ：
Given statements S(n), one for each natural number n,
suppose that:
(i) Base Step : S(0) is true;
(ii) Inductive Step : if S(n) is true, then S(n + 1) is true.
Then S(n) is true for all natural numbers n

06:45:39 AM
Mathematical induction 数学归纳
Second Form of Induction ：
Let S(n) be a family of statements, one for each natural
number n, and suppose that:
(i) S(0) is true;
(ii) if S(k) is true for all predecessors ( 前列 ) k of n, then S(n)
is itself true.
Then S(n) is true for all natural numbers n.

06:45:39 AM
Binomial coefficients 二项系数

Where the coefficients

“n choose r”, Pascal.

It can be proved by mathematical induction.

06:45:39 AM
Binomial coefficients 二项系数
By De Moivre’s theorem, we have

Comparing the real part of the equation, we conclude

Where fn is a polynomial ( 多项式 ) with all coefficients being

integers.
06:45:40 AM
Euler’s theorem 欧拉定理（简介）
By Tyler Series:

The real part:

The imaginary part:

06:45:40 AM
Greatest common divisors 最大公约数
Division algorithm
Given integers a and b with divisor ( 除数 ) a≠0, there exists
a unique ( 唯一的 ) integers q (quotient, 商 ) and r
(remainder, 余数 ) with

Corollary: there are infinitely ( 无穷 ) many primes ( 质数 ).

06:45:41 AM
Greatest common divisors 最大公约数
Common divisor c of integers a and b:
c|a, c|b

Gcd (a,b): the greatest one.

A conclusion: (a,b) is a linear combination of a and b .

(a,b) = sa + tb, s,t ∈ Z

06:45:41 AM
Greatest common divisors 最大公约数
Proof.
Consider the set I = {sa + tb, s,t ∈ Z}
I has positive integers: ±ka, ±kb are in the set
There must be a smallest d=s0a+t0b>0, Least Number Axiom
Unique form: a=qd+r, 0≤r<d , division algorithm
So r=a-q(s0a+t0b)=(1-qs0)a+(-qt0)b ∈ I
r has to be 0, thus d|a ; for the same reason, d|b
d is a common divisor
06:45:41 AM
Greatest common divisors 最大公约数
For any common divisor c,
let a=mc, b=nc,
so d=s0mc+t0nc,
thus c|d
Proof completes.

gcd(a,b) is the only positive common divisor that is the

linear combination of a and b with integer coefficients.

06:45:41 AM
Rational numbers 有理数
a and b are relatively prime: gcd(a,b)=1

Every nonzero rational number r has a lowest term a/b with

a and b being relatively prime.

sqrt(2) is not a rational number (it is irrational).

06:45:41 AM
Euclidean Algorithm 欧几里得算法
Let a and b be positive integers.
There is an algorithm that finds the gcd d = (a, b);
There is an algorithm that finds a pair of integers s and t
with d = sa + tb.

Top-down: repeat division algorithm

Bottom-up:

06:45:41 AM
Euclidean Algorithm 欧几里德算法

06:45:41 AM
Programming:
Implement Euclidean algorithm by ipython notebook:
Input:
a 1000×2 random integer matrix, each random number
is in [-100000, 100000]
Output:
a 1000×3 integer matrix, each line has the gcd and the
coefficients of the corresponding integers.

06:45:41 AM
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic 算术基本定理

Every integer a ≥ 2 is either a prime or a product of primes.

Moreover, if a has factorizations
a = p1 · · · pm and
a = q1 · · · qn,
where the p’s and q’s are primes, then n = m and the q’s
can be re-indexed so that qi = pi for all i.
(proved by mathematical induction from m=1, 2, … +∞)

06:45:41 AM
Rational number factorization 有理数分解
Every positive rational number r≠1 has a unique
factorization:

where the pi are distinct primes and the gi are nonzero

integers.
Moreover, r is an integer if and only if gi > 0 for all i.

06:45:41 AM
Congruence 同余
If m ≥ 0 is fixed, then integers a and b are congruent
modulo m, denoted by
a ≡ b mod m
if m | (a − b) .
m is called modulus ( 模数 ).

a ≡ b mod 2 is said to have the same parity (odd or even,

奇偶同性 )

06:45:41 AM
Congruence 同余
Reflexive:
a ≡ a mod m
Symmetric:
if a ≡ b mod m, then b ≡ a mod m
Transitive:
if a ≡ b mod m and b ≡ c mod m,
then a ≡ c mod m

06:45:41 AM
Congruence 同余
If p is a prime, a and b are integers, then
(a+b)p ≡ ap + bp mod p
(examining the binomial coefficients)

ap ≡ a mod p
(mathematical induction on a=1,2,… , examining (a+1)p mod
p)

06:45:41 AM
Congruence 同余
If the gcd (a, m) = 1,
then for every integer b, the congruence
ax ≡ b mod m
can be solved for x (integer x exists);
In fact, let x = sb, where sa ≡ 1 mod m (since 1=sa+tm).

Moreover, any two solutions are congruent mod m.

06:45:41 AM