CHEMISTRY WATER

Coal & Oil Hydrogen

Analysis Clarified /DM / Cooling
Boiler
Service System
Chemistry /
waterSystem
SWAS

Cooling Stator Water

Water
System
CHEMISTRY System

CPU ( Condensate
Polishing Unit)
 Purpose of Aeration
 Exposing Water to Atmospheric air thereby
oxidizing some of the dissolved salts.

 During aeration, two impurities viz. Ferrous

Bicarbonate and Manganous Bicarbonate are
oxidized as follows;
 Fe(HCO3)2 + O2 -- FeO(OH) + CO2 + H2O
 Mn(HCO3)2 + O2 -- MnO2(OH) + CO2 + H2O
 Pre Treatment of Raw Water
• Chemicals dosed includes;
– Alum
– PAC
– polyDADMAC
– Chlorine
– Chlorine Dioxide
 Dosing of Chlorine
 The purpose of dosing is to
minimize/reduce the growth of any algae,
microorganisms. Normally chlorine is
dosed at a rate of 8-10 Kg/Hr.
 Chlorine is most common disinfectant in
water treatment.
 Residual chlorine is maintained 0.5 to 1
mg/L in the distribution system.
 Facts About Chlorine

2.5
2.5Times
Times
Heavier
HeavierThanThan
Air
Air

1 1Volume
VolumeOfOf
Liquid
LiquidChlorine
Chlorine Threshold
ThresholdLimit
Limit
Expand
Expandtoto CHLORINE
CHLORINE For Chlorine
For Chlorine
457
457volumes
volumes IsIs1.0
1.0ppm
ppm
OfOfGas
Gas

Chlorine
Chlorineisis
Greenish
GreenishYellow
Yellow
Colored Gas
Colored Gas

Chlorine comes in Tonners of weight 1500 Kg

Automatic Chlorine Leak Absorption System
 CHLORINE DIOXIDE DOSING
 Powerful and highly effective oxidizer.
 Not affected by pH because it is a dissolved gas.
 Won’t react with many organic contaminants -
including ammonia compounds.

 Excellent biofilm removal - rapidly penetrates and

oxidizes biofilms.

 Solubility of ClO2 10 times more than Cl2 at temp > 11 C

 Can destroy odors caused by microorganisms and organics

 Comparison of Chlorine Dioxide & Chlorine
Sr. No Chlorine Chlorine Dioxide
01 It is pH dependent ( Favorable pH independent
working zone < 7 pH)
02 Does not removes Bio film Very Effective against Bio
Film
03 Less Oxidizing Power It has 5 times more Oxidizing
power than Chlorine
04 Reacts with other chemicals Does not react with other
like Ammonia & its derivatives chemicals like Ammonia & its
derivatives
05 Forms carcinogenic products Does not form carcinogenic
like THM ( Tri Halo Methane) products like THM ( Tri Halo
Methane)
06 Less Solubility More Solubility: 10 times
more soluble than Chlorine
07 Produces Chloride ions on Does not produce Chloride
dissociation ions
Commercial Chlorine Dioxide Generators
involve following mechanism

 Cl2 + H2O --- [HOCl / HCl]

Chlorinated water

 [HOCl / HCl] + NaClO2 -- ClO2 (g) + H /

Chlorine Dioxide
OCl + NaOH + ClO3
- -

as it involv
es mixing
This metho of existing
d is the wi Chlorinate
dely accep d water wi
ted metho th Sodium
d for the p Chlorite
roduction
of ClO2
 Chlorine Dioxide Generator

Chlorinated
Water

ClO2 Precursor
Chemical
10
 ALUM Dosing
 COAGULATION:-Coagulation means to bring
together the suspended particles. As the
suspended particles carry negative charge
due to the presence of silicate ions (sand),
they are neutralized by the addition of
+vly charged particles of Al+3; that comes
from Ferric Alum (Al2SO4).
 Entire process takes place in
Clarifier/Clarifloculator.
 PAC DOSING
 PAC : Polyaluminium Chloride
 It is a polymer of formula AlnClm
 Advantages:-
 Does not reduces pH
 Better Coagulation power than alum
 Flocs formed are larger than alum
 Reduces ionic load in downstream specially
Sulphate/ Aluminium
 USE OF CLARIFIED WATER
 In Production of DM water.

 In Production of Potable (Drinking) Water.

 In Cooling Water System as make up

water

 In service water system.

 DM STREAM COMPRISES OF
SAND FILTER

CARBON FILTER

CATION RESIN VESSEL

DEGASSER

ANION RESIN VESSEL

MIXED BED
 SAND FILTERS

 Removes turbidity/ suspended impurities

present in the water.

 Comprises of gravels / Pebbles [ of 2

sizes] , Sand [ of 3 sizes]
 ACTIVATED CARBON FILTERS

 Removes excess Chlorine present in the

water.

 Contains Carbon
 Weak & Strong Acid Cation
Exchangers
 It replaces all Cations present in the water
with H+

 Ca+2 + [Resin-H+]  H+ + [Resin-Ca+2]

 Mg+2 + [Resin-H+]  H+ + [Resin-Mg+2]

 Weak & Strong Base Anions
 It replaces all Anions present in water OH-.

 Cl- + [Resin-OH-]  OH- + [Resin-Cl-]

 SO4-2 + [Resin-OH-]  OH- + [Resin-SO4-2]

 Finally H+ and OH- combines to give water

 H+ + OH- 
H2O (Water)
 Mixed Bed
 Mixed Bed is like a Polishing Unit, that
removes any residual cation or anion left
over from the preceding vessels.

 Contains equal quantity of Cation & Anion.

 DM Water Quality
• DM water is used as feed to Boiler

• DM water characteristics;
– pH = 6.8- 7.2
– Conductivity = < 0.1 uS/cm
– Silica = < 10 ppb
Boiler Cycle Chemistry
 Boiler Cycle Chemistry
• Boiler water requires treatment
– To ensure no corrosion / deposition

• Boiler Filling using chemicals

– Ammonia to increase pH
– Hydrazine to reduce Dissolved Oxygen
 Boiler Cycle Chemistry
• Condensate System

• Feed water system

• Boiler Drum System

• Steam System
 Key Boiler chemistry parameters
• pH
• Dissolved Oxygen
• Silica
• Chloride
• Sodium
• ACC
 SWAS ANALYZERS
Sample pH Cond(uS/cm) Silica(ppb) After Cation Cond.
  Status Status Status Status
Feed water Available Available   Available

CBD Available Available Available NA as per design

SS Available Available   Available
MS NA as per design Available   Available
CEP Available Available   Available

CPU O/L Available Available Available Available

Make up Water Available Available   Available

CW NA as per design Available    
TG ECW Available      
SG ECW Available      
ANALYSERS STATUS REMARKS  
CEP Sodium Analyser Available    
CPU O/L Sodium Analyser Available    
MS Sodium Analyser Available    
SS Sodium Analyser Available    
CEP DO Analyrer Available    
Feed water I/L DO Analyser Available    
Dearator O/L DO Analyser Available    
CBD Chloride Analyser Available    
CBD Phosphate Analyser Available    
Feed Hydrazine Analyser Available    
SWAS (steam and water analysis
system)
Specific Conductivity Monitors Feed water purity and, in
conjunction with the measurement of sodium, chloride and
sulphate, it serves the purpose to detect condenser leakage.
Any ingress of impurity will immediately reflect as increase
in conductivity of water

• CATIONIC CONDUCTIVITY: Gives Low level contamination

ingress.
• Anions get s converted into their corresponding acids.
• Magnifies the original conductivity by atleast three to five
times
• Monitored in condensate, Feed water, Main steam, HP & LP Steam

 SODIUM ANALYZER: Monitors extent of sodium carry over.

 Contributes to Condenser tube leakage
 Monitored in Condensate, HP Steam
SWAS (steam and water analysis
system)

DISSOLVED OXYGEN:
• Monitored in Condensate & in Feed Water.
• Gives feedback of the performance of Deaerator.

HYDRAZINE:
• Monitoring in Feed water
• Excess hydrazine dosing may result in formation of
ammonia

 SILICA:
 Monitoring in Boiler Drum.
 Not much significant for low pressure boilers
CHEMICALS DOSED IN BOILERS
 AMMONIA: At discharge of CEX pump, to
boost the pH of condensate.

 HYDRAZINE: To remove the residual

oxygen (At Feed water Storage Tank) –
Dosing Stopped

 TRISODIUM PHOSPHATE: To boost the pH

of boiler drum.
 Ammonia Dosing System
Dosing Point: Ammonia is Dosed at CPU o/L, BFP
Suction, Boiler fill line

Purpose of Dosing:
• Make up to the Boiler cycle at Hot well is having pH of ~ 7.0
• To Boost the pH of Condensate to the range of 8.8 – 9.2
(Ideal pH range for Fe & Cu Metallurgy)

How Ammonia Works:

NH3 + H2O  NH4OH ↔ (NH4)+ + (OH)-
More is the OH- ion, more will be the pH of water
 De Aeration
Process of Removal of Dissolved Oxygen
from water is called De aeration.

De Aeration can be
achieved by

BY PHYSICAL BY CHEMICAL
DEAERATION DEAERATION
 PHYSICAL DEAERATION

De Aeration is carried out at De Aerator.

In De aerator LP Bleed steam is allowed to come in contact with
condensate.
By Dalton’s law of Partial pressure, the Partial Pressure of
Dissolved Oxygen decreases when D.O comes in contact with Air.
By Henry’s law, as the pressure of dissolved gas decreases, its
solubility also decreases.
 Hydrazine Dosing

Water

Steam De Aerator

Feed Water Storage Tank

Hydrazine
Dosing
 CHEMICAL DE AERATION

 Using such Chemicals that act as Reducing Agent.

 Use of Hydrazine as Oxygen Scavenger

 N2H4 + O2  N2 + H2O

 Hydrazine is Dosed at De aerator Outlet or Feed

water storage tank Inlet.
Hydrazine as Oxygen Scavenger

 Being highly Volatile, does not contribute to

any TDS & conductivity increase in water.
 Being Basic in nature also boosts the pH.
 At High temperature, it decomposes;
 3 N2H4  N2 + 4 NH3
 Use of Hydrazine maintains Dissolved Oxygen
< 10 ppb
 Hydrazine level maintained as 8 – 22 ppb
 Alternatives to Hydrazine
 Ascorbic Acids At high temp they
break Down to
 Diethyl Hydroxyl amine produce Carbon
dioxide thereby
resulting in corrosion

 Sodium Sulphite
 Na2SO3 + O -> Na2SO4

It results in salt deposition

 Tri sodium Phosphate Dosing

 TSP is dosed in Boiler Drum to boost the pH

of feed water to the range of 9.5-10.5
 Na3PO4 + H2O  Na2HPO4 + NaOH
This sodium hydroxide
Boosts the pH
 Solubility of TSP increases with temp. up to
1200C. From 120 -2200C solubility starts
decreasing.
 Because of low solubility at boiler
conditions, excess phosphate precipitates
out. This is called Phosphate Hide Out.
 Trouble Shooting
Continuous Blow Down (CBD)
 Reasons for CBD:-
 Low pH & High Phosphate:-
 For LP Drums, Phos limit = 20 ppm
 For HP drums, Phos limit = 10 ppm
 pH of the drums can be lowered
 due to the presence of Organic Matter ( Metabolic
product of bacteria, algae). O.M on hydrolysis produces
organic acid which extract base (NaOH) from boiler
water thereby lowering the pH.
 Condenser tube leakage
 High Conductivity:-
 TYPES OF FEED WATER
TREATMENT
 ALL VOLATILE TREATMENT (AVT) AND
OXYGENATED TREATMENT(OT).
 AVT ARE TWO TYPES
 1. AVT (R ) 2. AVT (O)
 AVT(R) – REDUCING ALL VOLATILE
 AVT(O) – OXIDIZING ALL VOLATILE
 OT -- OXYGENATED TREATMENT
 AVT (R)
 IN AVT (R) REGIME AMMONIA AND A
REDUCING AGENT (HYDRAZINE) ARE
USED.
 THE ORP SHOULD BE IN THE RANGE OF
-300 TO 350 mV ( necessary to protect
mixed metallurgy F.S)
 IRON LEVEL :- 2 PPB
 AVT(O)
 ONLY AMMONIA USED TO MAINTAIN THE
FEED WATER SYSTEM
 REDUCING AGENT IS ELIMATED
 ORP COULD BE ZERO OR POSITIVE
 IRON LEVEL -1 PPB
 OT –OXYGENATED TREATMENT
 HERE OXYGEN AND AMMONIA ARE USED.
 ORP +100 TO 150 Mv
 IRON LEVEL : 0.5 PPB
 Fluid boundary layer
H2O
Fe(OH)2 H2 OH- Fe(OH)+

epitactic
H2
Oxide protective Fe(OH)2
Cover layer
Fe2+ H2 OH- Fe(OH)2+_
2

topotactic
1
3 Fe(OH)2 = Fe3O4 + H2 + 2 H2O
metal
Schematic of oxide formed on iron based feed water surfaces
during operation with deoxygenated AVT (R) feed water
 Fluid boundary layer H2O
O2

metal
Fe3O4
α-Fe2O3
2 Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 + H2 = 2Fe(OH)2+ + H2O
2 Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 = 2 FeOOH + H2O
2 Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 = Fe2O3 + 2 H2O
Schematic representation of oxide formed on iron based feed
water surfaces during operation with oxidizing feed water
 AVT (O) & OT CHEMISTRY
 BOTH IN AVT (O) & OT, THE
PROTECTIVE MAGNETITE LAYER’S PORES
ARE PLUGGED WITH FERRIC OXIDE
HYDRATE FeOOH OR Fe2O3. HENCE
DIFFUSION OF Fe2+ FROM THE STEEL
SURFACE THROUGH THE PORES IN THE
PROTECTIVE EPITACTIC COVERER LAYER
TO THE OXIDE /WATER PHASE
BOUNDARY IS STRONGLY INHIBITED.
 Boiler Preservation

 Wet Preservation:- Fill the boiler with

DM water & maintain 50 ppm of N2H4 & pH
between 9.5 -10.5 using NH3
 Recirculation should be done
intermittently.
 Dry Preservation:- Nitrogen capping is
done at a positive pressure of 0.5 Kg/cm2
in the system.
COOLING WATER SYSTEM
 COOLING WATER SYSTEM
 Steam is condensed in the condenser with
Clarified water (Cooling Water).
 Hot water from condenser is cooled in the
cooling towers.
 Cooling towers are Induced Draught type
 Cooling water is recycled approx. 3 times and
then thrown out.
 The waste water i.e blow down water is fed in
Ash sump.
Water Conservation By Recycling of
Cooling Water

 Presently plant is operating at 3.0 COC i.e.

water was recycled 3 times and then
thrown out.

 Now water will be recycled 5.0 times and

around 500 Cu.M/Hr water will be saved.
 Cycle of Concentration (COC)
 COC = Ion in cooling water / Ion in Make
up water.

 Say eg Calcium in make up = 100 ppm

and in cooling water = 250 ppm
 Then COC = 250 / 100 = 2.5

 COC can be increased by reducing blow

down and decreased by increasing blow
down
WATER BALANCE DIAGRAM AT 3 COC
REVISED ENV PROTECTION AMENDMENT RULES 2015

New Challenge
to reduce water
consumption
 Treatment of Cooling Water
 Dosing Of Chlorine

 Dosing of Sulfuric Acid

 Dosing of Anti scalant and corrosive agents,

polymer dispersants.

 Dosing of Bio dispersants. (surface acting agents

that increases the efficiency of chlorine by
dispersing the various loose microorganism
growth and helps in penetration of chlorine
inside the microorganisms)
Corrosion Rate Determination by
Corrosion Coupons
 Coupons generally used are of Mild Steel &
S.S depending on the metallurgy used.
 Corrosion rate is expresses in terms of MPY
( Milli Inch Penetration per Year)
 Limit for SS < 0.5 MPY & for MS < 3 MPY.
 Corrosion rate = [W x 365 x1000]/(2.54)3 *

ADT

 D = 7.91 g/cm3 for SS & 7.85 for MS

Deposition Rate determination by
Deposit Monitor
 Here conditions are simulated like that of
condenser.
 S.S rod is used and water is passed through
it (flow of 7-9 LPM)
 Temperature is maintained by using
immersing heater controlled by thermostat.
 Deposition rate is calculated by Weight
difference of the SS rod after two months.
 Limit for Deposition rate = 15 mg/dm2
 DEPOSIT MONITOR
Tem p . In d i c at o r

TH E RM O STA T

88 88 88 88 S kin
C o n n e c tio n T e rm in a l
S en sor
Skin open
O utlet
Inlet O utlet sensor
Fu se O n / O ff sw itch M a in S u pp ly H e ater
Adapter

W ater Outlet

S S N ut

Inlet sensor PV C for sensor

A crylic Tube U nion

Proxim ity
Sw itch S S H eater

Adapter
1/ 2” Tee
1/ 2” x 3/ 4” T ee
A dapter
Inlet Ball
V alve
A dapter
U nion
D rain valve
W ater Inlet S S Nut
 Biofilm formation checking by
Biofouling Monitor
 A SS rod having two sides connected to
the Pressure gauge and the differential
pressure is measured across the two ends.
As the Bio film forms inside the tube the
flow of the water across two ends varies
thereby resulting in pressure difference.
 Bio Fouling Monitor

B io fo u lin g M o n ito r

D PG

P ressu re d rop tu b e O u tle t

PG
F lo w M e te r

S Y M B O L S
In le t

= B a ll V a lv e
= F lo w C o n tr o l V a lv e

D .P .G . = D iffe r e n tia l P r e s s u r e G a u g e

= S tr a in e r V a lv e
 Total Bacterial Count
 Helps in identifying various Aerobic
bacteria.
 Measured by using Bactaslyde.
 Slide dipped in water & kept back in tube
& incubate for 24 hrs.
 Red Spots indicate the presence of
bacteria.
 Monitoring of Microbial Growth
Bacteria Count Test Comparison Chart

103 104 105 106 107

Target
TOTAL BACTERIAL GROWTH
 Sulphate Reducing Bacteria
 These are anaerobic and generates energy for
their growth by reducing Sulphate (SO 4-2) to
Sulphide (S-2) and thereby causing corrosion of
Iron.
BOILER
 CONDENSATE
POLISHING UNIT
(CPU)
 CPU
• CPU requirement

• Polishing the boiler water from

impurities

• Sourcing of Impurities

• From Make up water to Boiler

• From Condenser Tube leakage
• From Chemicals
 CPU
• In 500 MW , 1 x 50 % CPU in design

• CPU design Flow = 640 CuM / Hr

• CPU takes care of initial start up loading

(impurities) of boiler and contributes in
early start up if unit

• CPU contains both Cation & Anion Resin

• CPU lies in between CEP and LP Heater

PRIMARY WATER
SYSTEM (PWS)
 PWS
• Primary water system comprises of
following components;

• Main Filter (Magnetic filter)

• Ion Exchanger unit

• Alkalizer

• Fine Filter
 PWS
• Quality of PWS

• DM water is used as make up

• pH = 8.5 – 9.0
• Conductivity = 2.2 – 2.5 uS/cm
• Dissolved Oxygen = 20 ppb
• Copper & Iron = 5 ppb
• N2 is used for purging in PWS for reducing
D.O
 Hydrogen Cooled Generator
Hydrogen Purity = > 99.99 %

Hydrogen Dew Point = Should be less than Max + 10 C at Casing

pressure ( ~3.5 KSC)

Hydrogen is best coolant because

low density,
high specific heat,
highest thermal conductivity (at 0.168 W/(m·K)) of all
gases;
it is 7-10 times better at cooling than air.
Another advantage of hydrogen is its easy detection by 
hydrogen sensors.
A hydrogen-cooled generator can be significantly smaller, and
therefore less expensive, than an air-cooled one
 Hydrogen Cooled Generator
High specific heat of hydrogenhas advantage that Hydrogen does
not gets easily heated up as for 1 C rise in H2 temp, it will require
large amount of heat.

Hydrogen offers the highest heat conductivity property

compared to Air or other gases and hence, is a very efficient
carrier of generated heat, from a electrical machine.

Low H2 Density compared to Air

Hydrogen has one of the lowest gas densities thus offering
least resistance to the rotation of the Rotor within the
Generator. In turn there is lower energy requirement for
rotating the machine countering the offered drag / windage
factor. Air is 14 times more dense than Hydrogen
 Importance of Maintaining Hydrogen
Pressure, Purity and Dryness
•  Hydrogen purge / casing pressure
• A limited, higher pressure of Hydrogen purge maintained within the Rotor
rotating space, increases the gas density. This increased density increases the
specific gas conductivity (v/v). Meaning, a lesser volume of Hydrogen gas moved
across the rotating machine will effectively remove all the heat. Usually the
Hydrogen pressure is maintained in the range 3 to 4 Bar(g).
• Hydrogen purity
• Hydrogen has molecular weight of 2, while Air is 29. This means Air weighs more
than 14 times compared to Hydrogen. The impurity which will afflicts Hydrogen
purge is Air due to limited ingress. It is important to note, each percentage point
increase of Air impurity in Hydrogen will have a 14 times exponential increase in
Gas density within the Rotor space in the Generator. Thus, the increased drag
caused is also exponential in value. The best performance will be derived only
when the Hydrogen purity within the TG is maintained near constant at 99.5%.
• Hydrogen Dew point
• Most people understand this aspect well, and many Generator manufacturers
even provide/recommend a Hydrogen gas drier within the Hydrogen gas closed-
loop circulation. Wet gas is severly detrimental to the life of the windings due to
increased risk of corrosion and insulation failure. Hence, it is very important that
purge gas Dew point be maintained as low as possible. Usual industry standard is
 Hydrogen gas Specifications

GURANTEED SPECIFICATION
MAXIMUM IMPURITY LEVELS (PPM BY VOLUME)
Brand N H-C S  
Moist
O2 CO2 CO Oxid Ar N2 Compo compo Hg Cl2
ure
es unds unds H2
IOLAR- 99.9
4 4 0.5 1 0.5 Nil 100 1 0.1 Nil Nil
2 98
IOLAR- 99.9
6 6 1 1 1 Nil 250 2.5 0.1 Nil Nil
3 97
Comme
  99.5
rcial
Lubricating Oil Monitoring
 Kinematic viscosity
• What it means: Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a liquid's flow under
the influence of gravity.  It's handy to think of a lubricant's Kinematic
viscosity as its "I.D. card." 
It is the time required for a fixed amount of an oil to flow through a
capillary tube under the force of gravity.

• The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stoke or centistoke (1/100 of a stoke).

• Kinematic viscosity may be defined as the quotient of the absolute viscosity

in centipoises divided by the specific gravity of a fluid, both at the same
temperature--
•
Significance & Use:   The proper operation of equipment depends on the
proper Kinematic viscosity at operating temperature of the oil used for its
lubrication.
•   Viscosity-temperature Relationship The manner in which the viscosity of a
given fluid varies inversely with temperature
 Viscosity Index
•   is used to characterize the
 What it means:  Viscosity Index
variations of the viscosity with temperature. A high VI indicates a
relatively small change of visocisty with temp and vica versa.

• The smaller a lubricant's viscosity as a result of temperature

change, the higher that lubricant's viscosity index.  High viscosity
index lubricants, such as AMSOIL products, protect better in
operations with temperature variations.

• Significance & Use:  Viscosity index indicates how much of a

lubricant's viscosity will change according to changes in temperature
between 40 deg. C (104 deg. F) and 100 deg. C (212 deg. F), which
roughly define the normal temperature range of most operations.
•  
 Acidity / Acid Number
 Acid Number:- The quantity of base, expressed in milligrams of
potassium hydroxide, that is required to neutralize the acidic constituents
in 1 g of sample.

 Significance & use:- Acidic constituents may arise

 as additives
 Degradation products formed during service as a result of oxidation.

 Use:-
 It acts as a guide in the quality control of lubrication oil.
 It indicates lubricant degradation during in service.
 Cloud Point & Pour Point
 Cloud Point:- The temperature at which a cloud or haze of waxy
crystals in an oil or fuel appears at the bottom of the test jar when
the oil is cooled under prescribed conditions.

 Pour Point:- The lowest temperature at which the oil is observed

to flow when cooled and examined under prescribed conditions.

 Above two tests are majorly applicable for machines running under
cold weather conditions.
 Demulsification Number
 It is the no of seconds required for the oil to separate
when it is emulsified and separated under specified
conditions.

 It is the ability of a fluid that is insoluble in water to

separate from water with which it may be mixed in the
form of an emulsion.

 Significance:- It gives a measure of the ability of the oil

to separate from an emulsion.
Drop Point of Lubricating greases
 It is the temperature at which the grease passes from a
semi – solid state to a liquid state under the conditions
of the test.

 Significance:- It indicates the conditions of the grease

in use at higher temperatures.
 Flash Point
 The lowest temperature of the oil sample, at which
application of a test flame causes the vapor of the
sample to ignite under specified conditions of test.

 Significance:-
 It measures the response of the sample to heat and
assessment of overall flammability hazard of a material.
 It also indicates the contamination of the oil if the flash point
deteriorates.
 Fire Point
 Fire point :-The temperature to which a combustible liquid must be
heated so that the released vapor will burn continuously when
ignited under specified conditions.

 Fire Resistant Fluid :- A fluid difficult to ignite which shows little

tendency to propagate flame. Fire-resistant Fluid Lubricant used
especially in high-temperature or hazardous hydraulic applications.
Three common types of fire-resistant fluids are: (1) water-
petroleum oil emulsions, in which the water prevents burning of the
petroleum constituent; (2) water-glycol fluids; and (3) non-aqueous
fluids of low volatility, such as phosphate esters, silicones, and
halogenated hydrocarbon-type fluids.
 Foaming Characteristics
 It helps in determination of foaming characteristics of lub oil

 Foaming A frothy mixture of air and a petroleum product (e.g., lubricant,

fuel oil) that can reduce the effectiveness of the product, and cause
sluggish hydraulic operation, air binding of oil pumps, and overflow of tanks
or sumps.

 Foaming can result from excessive agitation, improper fluid levels, air leaks,
cavitation, or contamination with water or other foreign materials.

 Foaming can be inhibited with an antifoam agent. The foaming

characteristics of a lubricating oil can be determined by blowing air at
constant rate for 5 minutes and then allowed to settle for 10 minutes.
 Rust Preventive Characteristics
 This test is intended to indicate the ability
of turbine oils to aid in prevention of
rusting of ferrous parts.

 Under this test, oil is mixed with water at

a temp of ~ 60C and a steel specimen is
immersed in it.
 Analytical Ferrography

 The magnetic precipitation and subsequent analysis of

wear debris from a fluid sample This approach involves
passing a volume of fluid over a chemically treated
microscope slide which is supported over a magnetic
field. Permanent magnets are arranged in such a way as
to create a varying field strength over the length of the
substrate. This varying strength causes wear debris to
precipitate in a distribution with respect to size and mass
over the Ferrogram. Once rinsed and fixed to the
substrate, this debris deposit serves as an excellent
media for optical analysis of the composite wear
particulates.
 Bomb Oxidation Test
 Bomb Oxidation A test for the oxidation
stability of a product obtained by sealing it
in a closed container with oxygen under
pressure. The drop in pressure of the
oxygen is a measure of the amount of
oxidation that has occurred.
 Dielectric Strength
 A measure of the ability of an insulating
material to withstand electric stress
(voltage) without failure. Fluids with high
dielectric strength (usually expressed in
volts or kilovolts) are good electrical
insulators. (ASTM Designation D 877.)
 Oxidation Stability Ability
 Oxidation Stability Ability of a lubricant to
resist natural degradation upon contact
with oxygen.
 Particle Count The number of particles
present greater than a particular micron
size per unit volume of fluid often stated
as particles > 10 microns per milliliter.
Particle Counter An instrument that
detects and counts particles found in a
fluid such as oil.
 Dissolved Gas Analysis in
Transformer Oil
 Buchholtz relay alarm. It can be generated
by
 Actual
generation of gas
 Generation
Solution 1 of fault
Solution 2 gases or entrapped
Exit gas Fault air
(5% silver (5% inflammability indicated
nitrate) ammonical
silver nitrate)
No reaction No reaction Non inflammable No fault, air only
present
Heavy white yellow precipitate Inflammable Under oil arcing
curdy or
Precipitate hot-spot
Black Precipitate Black sooty Inflammable Cellulose
precipitate degradation
 Phosphate Ester
 Any of a group of synthetic lubricants
having superior fire resistance. A
phosphate ester generally has poor
hydrolytic stability, poor compatibility with
mineral oil, and a relatively low viscosity
index (VI). It is used as a fire-resistant
hydraulic fluid in high-temperature
applications.
 Additive
 A chemical substance added to a
petroleum product to impart or improve
certain properties. Common petroleum
product additives are: antifoam agent,
anti-wear additive, corrosion inhibitor,
demulsifier, detergent, dispersant,
emulsifier, EP additive, oiliness agent,
oxidation inhibitor, pour point depressant,
rust inhibitor, tackiness agent, viscosity
index (VI.) improver.
 Lub Oil
Sr. Parameter GT Lub Oil ST Lub Oil Control
No Fluid
01 Kinematic viscosity 28.8 – 35.2 41.4 – 50.6 40-48
cST at 40C
02 Moisture (ppm) 500 500 1000
03 TAN (mgKOH/gm of 0.4 0.4 0.20
oil)
04 Emulsion 40-40-0 ( min 40 – 40 -0
Characteristic 20) ( 25 min)
05 MI (ppm) 50 100 100
06 RBOT 25 % ( min) of
value for new oil
( 450 minutes)
07 Flash Point 215 C
08 Pour Point 10 C ( Max)
Formation of Magnetite Layer

 Fe + H2O -> 2 Fe+2 + 2OH- + H2

 2 Fe+2 + 3 H2O -> Fe2O3 + H2
Hematite

 3 Fe+2 + 4 H2O -> Fe3O4 + H2

Magnetite

 At high temperature, in absence of oxygen

and in alkaline pH, formation of magnetite
from Fe+2 is enhanced.
 At ~ 3500C and after 15000-20000 hrs the
thickness of the oxide film becomes ~ 20
-30 µm.
 Caustic Embrittlement
 It is the increase in concentration of caustic in
boiler water in high heat flux zone as a result of
PO4-3 hide out resulting in concentrated solution
of NaOH, thereby exposing base metal to highly
alkaline condition, resulting in severe corrosion.
 Fe3O4 + NaOH -> 2NaFeO2 + Na2FeO2 + H2O
 Fe + NaOH -> Na2FeO2 + H2
Sod. Ferrite Sod. Ferrate
 Acid Chloride Corrosion

 Acid formation in boiler water results

from condenser tube leakage

 MgCl2 + H2O -> Mg(OH)2 + HCl

 Fe3O4 + HCl -> FeCl2 + FeCl3 + H2O
 Fe + HCl -> FeCl2 + H2
Base Metal
 Stress Corrosion Cracking
 It results from combined effect of tensile stress
and corrosive environment. Stress can be
because of operating condition, residual stress in
tubes (Bends / Joints) or from structural
constraints (fabrication).

 Occurs normally in austenitic steel [ Alloy of C &

Fe + Cr + Ni (78%) ](superheater & reheater
tubes)