Network Architecture

Session 8&9

Version 4.0 © 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 1
 Networking Models
Using layers to analyze problems in a flow of materials
The concept of layers is used to describe communication from
one computer to another.

The method of layering explains how a computer network

distributes information from a source to a destination. When
computers send information through a network, all
communications originate at a source then travel to a
destination.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 2

 Networking Models
Using layers to describe data communication

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 3

 OSI model
To address the problem of network incompatibility, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched networking models like
Digital Equipment Corporation net (DECnet), Systems Network Architecture
(SNA), and TCP/IP in order to find a generally applicable set of rules for all
networks. Using this research, the ISO created a network model that helps
vendors create networks that are compatible with other networks.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model released in 1984
was the descriptive network model that the ISO created. It provided
vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater compatibility and
interoperability among various network technologies produced by
companies around the world.
The OSI reference model has become the primary model for network
communications. Although there are other models in existence, most
network vendors relate their products to the OSI reference model. This is
especially true when they want to educate users on the use of their
products. It is considered the best tool available for teaching people about
sending and receiving data on a network.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 4

OSI model

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 5

OSI layers

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 6

OSI layers

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 7

OSI layers

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 8

OSI layers

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 9

 OSI layers
 Physical layer: The physical layer provides an interface between a data
link and transmission medium circuit. This layer is responsible for
providing transparent transmission of data across the physical link
system and includes various functions. It connects the network to the
transmission medium and also generates the electromagnetic signals.
The data link entities receive the services from the physical layer for
establishing a logical connection to the destination, ordered delivery of
data stream, etc.
 Data link layer: This layer provides an interface between physical and
network layers. It offers procedural and functional support for
establishing, maintaining, and terminating a data connection among
network entities. The data link layer services data units transferred over
this connection. It offers timing and controls the transmission and access
to the network medium. It hides the details of transmission media from
the higher layers. It provides error detection and correction in order to
offer reliable transmission for higher layers, independent of the data
being transmitted.
© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 10
 Network layer: This layer provides an interface between the data link and
transport layers. It offers routing and addressing of the message data and also
directs it to the destination network and node. It offers procedural and
functional support for maintaining network connections for exchange network
service data units between transport entities defined in the layered OSI
model. The transport layer has no idea about the interconnections being
defined. It offers a point-to-point connection between two network addresses
and between a pair of network addresses. More than one network connection
may be defined (generally implemented by the transport layer). It provides its
supported services to the transport layer during network-connection
establishment.
 Transport layer: This layer provides an interface between the network and
session layers. It offers continuity in the transmission and reliability of data
communication between two nodes. It provides a transport connection
between two session entities for the transfer of data between them,
independent of their locations. The transport entities support its services on
an end-to-end basis, which means it must map its address to the network
address. It is responsible for optimal usage of resources maintaining a
guaranteed quality of service. The protocol of this layer transparently offer
end-to-end communication and are not aware of the underlying protocols,
topology of the network, etc.
© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 11
 Session layer: This layer provides an interface between the
presentation and transport layers. It offers a means for
presentations entities to cooperate for organizing and
providing synchronization between dialogue and data
exchanges. It defines and manages the sequence of
interaction between communicating devices for data
communication between them. It provides a session
connection and manages the data transfer over it.
 Presentation layer: This layer provides an interface
between the top-most layer (application) and the session
layer. It provides mainly mapping to different formats and
syntax used for data transformation and selection of syntax
used for various application processes defined in the
application layer for network transmission.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 12

Application layer: This layer provides an interface between
the user applications and the presentation layer. It is the
highest layer of the OSI-RM. It provides various network
services required by user applications. It serves as a window
between application processes which are using OSI-RM and
defines its aspect for various application entities
corresponding to application processes. The application
processes can be either system functions, such as the
control of various operations of the system) or user functions
such as, data processing. (Active Directory services, which
are the subject of this part, are considered in the application
layer).

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 13

 Peer-to-peer communications
This form of communication
is referred to as peer-to-
peer. During this process,
the protocols of each layer
exchange information,
called protocol data units
(PDUs). Each layer of
communication on the
source computer
communicates with a
layer-specific PDU, and
with its peer layer on the
destination computer

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 14

 Peer-to-peer communications
Data packets on a network originate at
a source and then travel to a
destination. Each layer depends on
the service function of the OSI layer
below it. To provide this service, the
lower layer uses encapsulation to
put the PDU from the upper layer
into its data field. Then it adds
whatever headers and trailers the
layer needs to perform its function.
Next, as the data moves down
through the layers of the OSI model,
additional headers and trailers are
added. After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have
added their information, Layer 4
adds more information. This
grouping of data, the Layer 4 PDU,
is called a segment.
© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 15
 Peer-to-peer communications
Data packets on a network originate at
a source and then travel to a
destination. Each layer depends on
the service function of the OSI layer
below it. To provide this service, the
lower layer uses encapsulation to
put the PDU from the upper layer
into its data field. Then it adds
whatever headers and trailers the
layer needs to perform its function.
Next, as the data moves down
through the layers of the OSI model,
additional headers and trailers are
added. After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have
added their information, Layer 4
adds more information. This
grouping of data, the Layer 4 PDU,
is called a segment.
© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 16
 Peer-to-peer communications
The network layer provides a service
to the transport layer, and the
transport layer presents data to the
internetwork subsystem. The
network layer has the task of moving
the data through the internetwork. It
accomplishes this task by
encapsulating the data and attaching
a header creating a packet (the
Layer 3 PDU). The header contains
information required to complete the
transfer, such as source and
destination logical addresses.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 17

 Peer-to-peer communications
The data link layer provides a service
to the network layer. It encapsulates
the network layer information in a
frame (the Layer 2 PDU). The frame
header contains information (for
example, physical addresses)
required to complete the data link
functions. The data link layer
provides a service to the network
layer by encapsulating the network
layer information in a frame. The
physical layer also provides a
service to the data link layer. The
physical layer encodes the data link
frame into a pattern of 1s and 0s
(bits) for transmission on the
medium (usually a wire) at Layer 1.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 18

 Data Encapsulation
Data Encapsulation is a process of taking one Protocol Data
Unit (PDU) and enveloping it within a set of protocol header
and trailer. In the OSI 7 layers model, each layer is primarily
responsible for communicating with a peer layer on another
machine. This communication between peers is done in
"Protocol Data Units" (PDU), which consists of this layer's
Header, Trailer and Data encapsulated.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 19

 Data Encapsulation
 Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its PDU as it
proceeds through the layers. The Headers contain
information that specifically addresses layer-to-layer
communication. Headers, trailers and data are relative
concepts, depending on the layer that analyzes the
information unit. For example, the Transport Header (TH)
contains information that only the Transport layer sees. All
other layers below the Transport layer pass the Transport
Header as part of their Data. At the network layer, an
information unit consists of a Layer 3 header (NH) and data.
At the data link layer, however, all the information passed
down by the network layer (the Layer 3 header and the data)
is treated as data. In other words, the data portion of an
information unit at a given OSI layer potentially can contain
headers, trailers, and data from all the higher layers.
© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 20
Data Encapsulation

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 21

 Data encapsulation process
Encapsulation is the process of breaking a message into
packets, adding control and other information and
transmitting the message through the transmission media
with the following five steps processing.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 22

 Data encapsulation process
OSI model - data encapsulation
1.       Upper layers prepare the data to be sent through the
network
2.      The transport layer breaks the data into pieces called
segments, adding sequencing and control information.
3.      The network layer converts the segments into packets,
adding logical network and devices addresses.
4.      The data link layer converts the packets into frames,
adding physical device addressing information.
5.      The physical layer converts the frames into bits for
transmission across the transmission media.

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 23

 Data encapsulation process
To remember the sequence process easily, use this:
1.       Upper layer – DATA
2.      Transport layer – SEGMENTS
3.      Network layer – PACKETS with logical addresses.
4.      Data link layer – FRAMING with physical address (MAC
address)
5.      Physical layer – BITS
Understanding OSI model will provide a common language or
reference point between network professionals. Even for
antivirus and internet security software developers basically
work based on OSI model, directly or indirectly.
© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 24
Serial communication

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 25

© 2007 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Public 26