BBA IV

MODULE NAME:
PSYCHOLOGY
(MODULE CODE: BBA 3763)
 Course contents – Unit one
Introduction to psychology
 Nature and modern history of Psychology
 Common sense and psychology
 Similarities and differences with other social sciences
 Perspectives of psychology (Biological perspective, cognitive
perspective, behavioral perspective, Psychodynamic and
humanistic perspective, Sociocultural perspective and
evolutionary perspective)
 Scientific method and psychological research
What is psychology ?
Definitions and descriptions

 One can ask the questions what psychology is about and he can also try to examine it. In
his attempt to examine it he can find several definitions- early definitions to modern
definitions. To define psychology in precise terms is a difficult task as a word is having a
long history and is also combined with other faculties like religion and philosophy.
Further psychology is defined in a variety of ways.
 Psychologists, for very long time have been searching for a complete and satisfactory
definition of psychology. It seems that search is still going on. But a search for correct
knowledge is a never ending process. The term psychology can only be understood if we
explain it with early definitions and the modern definitions.
Early definitions
1. Psychology in terms of study of soul

 The earliest Greek philosophers attempted to define psychology with the most mysterious
and philosophical concept namely, that of soul.
 ‘Psychology’ word comes from Greek word ‘Psukhe’(psyche) and ‘logus’.
‘Psukhe’(psyche) means soul and ‘logus’ means reason or science. On this base earlier
psychology was called as a science of soul. Thus psychology was first defined as the
“science of soul”.
 According to earlier psychologists, the function of psychology was to study the nature,
origin and destiny of the human soul. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be
seen, observed and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul. So this
definition was rejected by time.
Consequently, to philosophers living 400 to 300 B.C.,
psychology was the “study of the soul.” This was the meaning
given by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
 
In view of the fact that these thinkers, particularly Socrates
and Plato, did not believe that animals have souls, it becomes
evident why for many centuries psychology’s main attention
has been given to human beings.

So this definition was rejected when the study of soul was entirely
difficult and we cannot conduct experiment and scientific studies on
it.
2. Psychology In terms of study of mind

 What is soul? How can it be studied? The inability to find clear

answers to such questions led some ancient Greek Philosophers to
define, psychology as the study of mind.
 At this stage, the word Psyche has acquired the meaning of mind and
it is used in the definition. Therefore, psychology was defined as the
study of the mind. William James (1891) says, “psychology is the
science of mental life”. It is also stated that psychology is mainly
concerned with mental activities.
 Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, yet
it also faced the same questions, namely: What is mind? How can it
be studied? Consequently, this definition was also rejected.
 3. Psychology In terms of the study of
consciousness
 The failure to define the terms soul and mind persuaded the philosophers and
psychologists to search for some other suitable definitions.

 William James in his book’ principles of psychology’ published in 1890 defined

psychology as “the description and explanation of state of consciousness as such”

 Wilhelm Wundt (1832- 1920) who established the first psychology laboratory at
the University of Leipzig in Germany and his disciple Edward Bradford
Titchener also concluded to define psychology as the science of consciousness.
According to these psychologists, the description and explanation of the states of
consciousness is the task of psychology which is usually done by the instrument
introspection- process of looking within.
 This definition was also rejected on the ground that: -
a. It has a very narrow vision on account of its not talking
about the subconscious and unconscious activities of the
mind.
b.The introspection method for the study of the conscious
activity of the mind proved the most subjective and
unscientific method.
c. It couldn’t include the study of the consciousness of
animals.
 
Any definition involving consciousness is subjected to severe criticism,
because, it is private and personal in an individual. If the meaning of
consciousness is awareness, only the concerned individual knows it.
Consciousness is also often associated with unconsciousness. A small child or a baby largely
in a state of unconsciousness of the world in which he lives. A man is unconsciousness of
many of his actions. While he is writing, he knows that he is writing, but he does not know
that he is also breathing and his lungs are in action. He is not ware of or conscious of the
actions of his kidney or the actions of digestive organs.
When a man goes to sleep he goes into unconsciousness, but it does not mean he is inactive.
Whether it is consciousness or unconsciousness, it is not subjected to a systematic study. We
do not know what a man thinks or imagines or seeing a strange object or event, unless he
himself tells us. Therefore, it is not subjected for objective observation.
 4. Psychology in terms of study of
behavior

 From the 19th century, with the advent of the modern era of scientific investigations and thoughts,
psychology began to be defined in terms of the study pf behavior.

 The first man to define psychology as the science of behavior was an English psychologist, William McDougall.
In his book ‘psychological psychology’, published in 1905, he wrote,” psychology may bet the best and most
comprehensively defined as the positive science of the conduct of living creatures.” Later on 1908, in his book
‘introduction to social psychology’, he added the word behavior to his definition and finally in his book, ‘An
outline of psychology’ gave the4 following meaningful definition: - “psychology is a science which aims to give us
better understanding and control of the behavior of the organism as a whole.” (1949, p- 38)
In the same period, an American professor Walter Bowers Pillsbury in his book’ essentials of
psychology’, published in 1911 gave the same behavioral definition of the term psychology in the
words: - “psychology may be most satisfactorily defined as the science of human behavior”.
 
However, in later years in 1913, J.B. Watson, the father of the behaviorist school, proposed to
elaborate the concept of the term behavior including it in both human and animal behavior and
consequently he defined psychology as “the science of behavior “(taking into account the human
as well as animal behavior.)
 
Taking cues from the earlier works, contemporary psychologists and various other writers have
explained and defined psychology as science of behavior using a somewhat different vocabulary
as follows:
N.L. Munn says,” psychology is the science and the properly trained psychologists is a scientist, or
at least a practitioner who uses scientific method and information resulting from scientific
investigation (1967, p-4).
 
Similarly, Desiderato, Howieson and Jackson write, ‘psychology can be broadly defined as the
investigation of human and animal behavior and the mental and physiological processes
associated with the behavior’.
 Conclusion regarding definitions
 
The above account of definitions regarding the subject psychology clearly reveals that the
meaning and concept of this subject has frequently changed its shape based on its
dependence upon philosophical or scientific thinking, commenting over this aspect,
Woodworth (1948) says, “first psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost
consciousness. It still has behavior of sort”
 
Although even at this final stage there seems no agreement over universal definitions of
psychology, yet the definition may generally be viewed to center around a common pivot
of behavior. Consequently, it may be concluded that psychology is a science of behavior
or scientific study of the behavioral activities and experiences. The questions which
remain unanswered at this stage are: -
 
i. What do we actually mean by the term behavior?
ii. What is the nature of subject psychology? Is it a science? If yes, then what kind of
science is it?
 Meaning of the term behavior

2. Subconscious,
1. Motor, cognitive and unconscious and 3. Both human and
affective activities conscious behavior animal behavior
All the motor or conative It includes not only the Not limited to the study of the
activities (like walking, conscious behavior and human behavior. The behavior of the
activities of the human mind animals, insects, birds and even
swimming, dancing, etc.),
but also the sub conscious and plants is also covered in the subject
cognitive activities (like unconscious. psychology.
thinking, reasoning,
Consequently, it covers not Therefore, when we talk about the
imaging etc.) and affective only the overt behavior but also study of the behavior in psychology,
activities (like feeling the covert behavior involving we mean to study the behavior of all
happy, sad and angry etc.) all the inner experiences and living organism in all walks of their
mental process. life.
 
Modern definition of Psychology

“PSYCHOLOGY IS THE SCIENTIFIC

STUDY OF BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL
PROCESSES OF HUMAN AND ANIMAL’’
In this definition behavior, mental processes and scientific concepts are important
to notice .
 
Behavior includes all of our outward actions and reactions, such as talking, facial
expressions and movements. Behavior includes anything a person or animal does
that can be observed in some way.
 
Mental processes refer to all the internal, covert activity of our minds, such as
thinking, feeling, learning, and remembering. The mental processes are called
cognitive processes.
 
Why scientific?
 
To study behavior and mental processes in both humans and animals, psychologists
have to observe them systematically and objectively. By using scientific methods,
psychologists are able to find answers to questions about the nature of human
behavior and thought processes.
Nature of psychology
 It is an accepted reality that the nature of the subject psychology is quite
scientific. This fact has been properly recognized by the eminent psychologists and
thinkers as may be inferred out of the definition of psychology (in terms of the
scientific study or science of behavior) given by them in the earlier pages.
However, let us try to demonstrate why the subject psychology should be called as
a science.
In general, we may call the nature of subject scientific, if it fulfills the following
criteria: -
 
i. Possesses a body of facts and is able to support it through universal laws and
principle
ii. Emphasis on search for truth
iii. Doesn’t believe in hearsay, stereotypes, or superstitions.
iv. Believe in cause and effect relationships
v. Adopts the method of objective investigation, systematic and controlled observation
and scientific approach.
vi. Stands for the generalization, verifiability and modifications of the observed results or
deduced phenomena
vii. Helps in predicting the future developments
viii.Is able to turn its theory into practice by having its applied aspects
 Some of the more recent definitions of
Psychology, in chronological order

 Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior. It includes the application of this science to
human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986)
 The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)
 The scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s
physical state, mental state and external environment (Tavris and Wade, 1997)Psychology is all about
human behavior, about mental processes, and about the context in which behavior and mental
processes occur. (Das, 1998)
 The science of behavior and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)
 The science of behavior and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999)
 Scientific study of behavior and mind. (Nairne, 2003)
 A science in which behavioral and other evidence is used to understand the internal
processes leading people (and members of other species) to behave as they do.
(Eysenck, 2004)
 The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. (Ciccarelli & Meyer,2006;
Coon & Mitterer, 2007, 2008)The science that studies behavior and mental
processes. (Rathus,2008)
 
In short modern definition of Psychology focuses on:
1. Basically Psychology is a science, and
2. Psychology studies behavior and mental processes by using scientific methods.
 Let us summarize the nature of
psychology in the light of
abovementioned criteria.

 Psychology possesses a well-organized theory which is supported

by the relevant psychological laws and principles.
 It has its applied aspects in the form of various branches of
applied psychology like industrial, legal, clinical, educational
psychology and more.
 It believes that every behavior has its roots, the factors of its
causing, influencing or nurturing.
 
 Subjective ideas and opinions have little or no weight in carrying out the study of behavior
in the subject of psychology. It emphasizes on the search for the truth by advocating
objectivity, reliability and validity in the assessment of the behavior.
 The methods and techniques employed in the study of the behavior in psychology are
quite scientific. The steps like analysis of behavior, formulation of hypothesis, objective
observation or controlled experimentation, deduction, verification and generalization of
the results etc.; provide the solid base for the scientific method and approach in the
subject psychology.’
 The results of the study of behavior always stand for their verifications in similar other
conditions by other experimenters and observers. These results may be accepted, modified
or altered in the light of the recently available data and findings.
 The established facts, principles and laws of the behavior in the subject psychology enjoy
universal applicability inn practical life, other bodies of the knowledge and future
researches in its own field.
 The appropriate description as well as quantification of behavior is possible through the
help of psychology. We may make trustworthy predictions about the organism in the light
of the studied behavior.
On the basis of the above nature, it may be established
beyond doubt that psychology is a science. Its nature is
quite scientific and not philosophical or mysterious as
was supposed to be in days or yore
 Psychology as a science

What kind of science is psychology?

• We can divide all the sciences into two broad categories –
positive and normative sciences.
• While physical and life sciences are termed as positive sciences,
the subjects like logic, philosophy and ethics are included in the
category of natural sciences.
• Psychology in this sense unquestionably falls into the category
of positive sciences.
 What kind of positive science?

• The question here is, can we equate psychology, the science of behavior with the positive sciences like physics, chemistry, botany,
zoology, astronomy and mathematics etc.? The answer lies in the negative. In comparison with these sciences, psychology is not
developed and perfect science. In fact, it is a behavioral science which deals with the behavior of organism. This behavior is quite
dynamic and unpredictable. Methods of this are also not so absolute and objective as adopted by natural sciences. On the other
hand, physical and chemical reactions studied by natural sciences are always bound to be more exact, accurate and objective than
the studies of behavior in psychology.
• Consequently, it is not proper to equate psychology with the physical and natural sciences. Although psychology is striving hard in
its techniques and approach to be as objective, exact and accurate as possible, it has yet to attain the position and status of these
sciences. Thus in its true senses, it can be categorized as a developing positive science rather than a developed one.
• Hence, in the ultimate analysis for the understanding, the meaning and nature of the subject psychology, we can define as a
developing positive science of behavior
 History of psychology- early age to
modern time

Historical background of a subject not only presents a fascinating story of its gradual development but also
throws light on different ideologies pointing out different meaning, concepts, approaches and objectives of the
subject from time to time as advocated by the eminent scholars individually or collectively. The same is true
with the subject psychology also.
In this section, an attempt is made to have a glimpse at the history of psychology form early age to modern
age and the recent trends under some major headings as given below.
a. The early age of pre scientific psychology
b. The modern age of scientific psychology
c. The recent trends in contemporary psychology
 The early age of pre scientific psychology

The people’s behavior in the earliest period of history of psychology were answered quite
unscientifically merely on the basis of superstitions and speculations as below:
1. It was believed that a person’s behavior was the result of his fate which was bound to be
influenced by the movements of planets, moon or stars. In case we knew the positions of planets at
any particular moment, we could tell and predict the behavior of the person by evaluating his
horoscope. Besides the role of planets, demons, ghost, and spirits and other supernatural forces
were also held responsible for varying human actions. In this way, the cause and form of human
behavior were being located in something outside the human being.
2. The Greek philosophers are credited to look inside the human beings for clues to
behavior.
I. Socrates believed that inquiry into the nature of the cosmos is futile. As a result,
he tried to adopt a question- answer method for preparing into the nature of
man.
II. Plato draw a sharp distinction between mind and body, assigning the former by
far the key role for generating behavior.
III.Aristotle’s concept of the soul provides a corner stone in psychology for
centuries. He views the ‘soul’ or ‘psyche’ as meaning of life and considered the
mind as a living moving phenomenon that directs the activity of the body.
However, he considered mind and body as united and thus brought psychology
into the realm of biology.