RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
1

February
@Mohamed Yusuf Ali
24, 2019
Variables & Hypothesis
2

At the end of this lecture, students should be able to;

•differentiate between a concept and a variable.
•convert concepts into variables.
•identify types of variables.
•identify types of measurement scales.
•define hypothesis and its function in research.
•demonstrate how hypotheses are tested and formulated
•list different types of hypotheses and their applications
•explain how errors in the testing of a hypothesis can occur
February
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24, 2019
3
What is a variable?
An image, perception or concept
that is capable of measurement –
hence capable of taking on different
values .
A concept that can be measured
A property that takes on different
values
February
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24, 2019
 The difference between a concept
4
and a variable

 Measurability is the main difference

between a concept and a variable.
 Concepts are mental images or perceptions
and therefore their meanings vary markedly
from individual to individual.
 whereas variables are measurable, though,
of course, with varying degrees of accuracy.

February
@Mohamed Yusuf Ali
24, 2019
5 Converting concepts into
variables

Concepts indicators Variables

•Operationalization – how the concept will be

measured?
–Process of identifying indicators
•Indicators – a set of criteria reflective of the
concept, which can then converted into
variables
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February
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Cont…Example 1
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Concepts Indicator Variables

s
Wealth 1.Income 1.Total
2.Assets Income per
year
2.Total
values of
home, cars,
boats,
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investment February

s. 24, 2019
7
Cont…Example 2
Concepts Indicators Variables

1. Average marks 1. Percentage of

High academic obtained in marks
achievement exam; 2. Percentage of
2. Average marks marks
obtained in 3. Percentage of
practical; marks
3. Aggregate
marks

February
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24, 2019
Types of variable
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Cause
Model

Variabl
es
Unit of Study
measureme
nt Design

February
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Cause Model
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1. Change variable –the cause supposed to be
responsible for bringing about change(s) in a
phenomenon or situation
2. Outcome variable –the outcome or change(s)
brought about by introduction of an independent
variable
3. Variables which affect / influence –several
factors operating in a real-life situation may affect
changes in the dependent variable
4. Connecting or linking variables –confounding
variables which links independent and dependent February
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variable 24, 2019

 Cont…
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Smoking Cancer
Assumed Cause Assumed Effect
1 Independent Variable 2 Dependent Variable

Affect the Relationship

 The age of the person,

 The extent of his/her smoking,
 The duration of smoking ,
 The extent of daily exercise,
etc.

3 Extraneous Variables February

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24, 2019
Study Design
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1 Active Variable
–those variables that can be manipulated, changed
or controlled.
2
Attribute Variable
–those variables that cannot be manipulated,
changed or controlled and that reflect the
characteristics of the study population e.g. age,
gender, education and income
February
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 Cont…
12

1 2

Study Intervention:
 Different Teaching Study Population:
 Age
Models
 Gender
 Experimental
 Level of motivation
Intervention
 Attitude
 Programme Service,
 Religion, etc.
etc.
Active Variables Attribute Variables
A researcher can manipulate, A researcher can’t manipulate,
control or measure. control or measure.
February
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24, 2019
13
Unit of Measurement
1
Categorical Variable – measured in nominal or
ordinal measurement scales
–Constant variable – has only one category or value
–Dichotomous – has only two categories
–Polychotomous – can be divided into more than
two categories
2 Continuous Variable – measured in interval or
ratio scale
–have continuity in their measurement

February
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24, 2019
 Types of Measurement Scales
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Nominal or Ordinal or
Classificatory Scale Ranking Scale

Interval Scale Ratio Scale

February
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24, 2019
15
Cont…
Nominal Scale
 Each subgroup has a characteristics/ property
which is common to all classified within that
subgroup.
 Example;
–Gender – Male, Female
–Marital status – Single, Married,
Widowed, Divorced
–Colour – Red, Blue, Green, Yellow, Black
February
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24, 2019
16
Cont…
Ordinal Scale:
 It has the characteristics of a nominal scale e.g.
Individuals, groups, characteristics classified under
a subgroup have a common characteristics.
 Subgroups have a relationship to one another.
Arranged in ascending or descending order.
 Example;
–Income – above average, average, below average
–Obesity – underweight, normal, overweight, obese
–Likert scale – strongly disagree, disagree, neutral,
agree, strongly agree
February
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24, 2019
17
Cont…
Interval Scale:
 It has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale.
 It has a unit of measurement with an arbitrary
starting and terminating point.
 Divided into equally spaced units/ intervals.
 Example;
 –Income – RM501 – RM1000, RM1001 –
RM1500, RM1501 – RM2000
 –Body fat – 11% - 15%, 16% - 20%, 21% - 25%
 –Age group – 31 – 40 y/o, 41 – 50 y/o, 51 – 60
y/o
February
@Mohamed Yusuf Ali
24, 2019
18
Cont…
Ratio Scale:
 It has all the properties of an interval scale
 It has a fixed starting point e.g. a zero point
 Example;
–Income – RM
–Age – years/ months
–Weight – kg
–Height – cm
–Energy intake - kcal
February
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24, 2019
What is Hypothesis?
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Assumption

Statements
Suspicion

Hunch
Idea

February
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24, 2019
Cont…
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 A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the

relationship between two or more variable.
 A proposition that is stated in a testable form and
that predicts a particular relationship between
two (or more) variables
 Characteristics of a hypothesis;
 It is a tentative proposition
 Its validity is unknown
 In most cases, it specifies a relationship
between two or more variables.
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February
24, 2019
Functions of Hypothesis
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It tells specific aspects of a research

problem to investigate

It tells what data to collect and what

not to collect

It enhances objectivity of a study

It enables to add to the formulation of

theory February
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24, 2019
 The Process of Testing a
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Hypothesis

Formulate your hunch or

assumption

Collect the required data

Analyze data to draw

conclusion

February
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24, 2019
 Characteristics of a hypothesis
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A hypothesis should be:

Simple, Specific and Capable of

Clear Verification

Related to the
existing body of Operationalizable
knowledge
February
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Types of hypothesis
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1 Research Hypothesis:
 Hypothesis of difference;
 Hypothesis of Point prevalence;
 Hypothesis of association;
 hypothesis of no difference.
2
Alternative Hypothesis:
 Explicitly specify the relationship that will be
considered as true in case the research hypothesis proves
to be wrong.
Opposite of research hypothesis
Null hypothesis (H0) or hypothesis of no
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February
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difference
25 Cont…
There are several ways of formulating a hypothesis.
For example:
 There is no significant difference in the proportion
of male and female smokers in the study
population.
 A greater proportion of females than males are
smokers in the study population.
 A total of 60 per cent of females and 30 per cent
of males in the study population are smokers.
 There are twice as many female smokers as male
smokers in the study population.
February
@Mohamed Yusuf Ali
24, 2019
Errors in testing a hypothesis
26

Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a

hypothesis may be drawn if:
The study design selected is faulty;
the sampling procedure adopted is faulty;
the method of data collection is inaccurate;
 the analysis is wrong;
the statistical procedures applied are
inappropriate; or
 the conclusions drawn are incorrect.
February
@Mohamed Yusuf Ali
24, 2019
27
Cont…
Hence, in drawing conclusions about a
hypothesis, two types of error can occur:
 Rejection of a null hypothesis when it
is true. This is known as a Type I error.
 Acceptance of a null hypothesis when
it is false. This is known as a Type II
error.

February
@Mohamed Yusuf Ali
24, 2019
 The End
Thanks for listening.
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Any Question

February
@Mohamed Yusuf Ali
24, 2019