AS Applied ICT – 9626 - Theory

2017-20
Year 12

Chapter 01 – Data, Information,

Knowledge and Processing
1 – Key Concepts 2
1 2–– Sources
Sources 3
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Quality of
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Coding, Encoding
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and K
K of
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Questions
of Data
Data Information
Information &
& Encryption
Encryption Accuracy
Accuracy

 As a teacher, you will refer to these concepts again and again to help unify
the subject and make sense of IT. If mastered, learners can use the
concepts to solve problems or to understand unfamiliar subject-related
material.
 Impact of Information Technology
Information Technology (IT) is the application of technology to process
information.
The impact of IT on all aspects of everyday life is immense. The enormity
of the impact can be seen in industry and commerce, transport, leisure,
medicine and the home. The impact on the work force is a very important
factor to consider and communications using new technologies have
made the World seem smaller.
 Hardware and software
Many hardware components and software applications are used in IT
systems. It is important to understand how these work, and how they
interact with each other and within our environment.
 Network
Computer systems can be connected together to form networks allowing
them to share resources.
1 – Key Concepts 2
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 The internet
The internet is a global communications network that allows computers worldwide
to connect and share information in many different forms. Examples include email,
web pages, and audio and video files. The impact of the internet on our lives is
profound. While it provides huge benefits to society, security of data is an issue,
both in the work place and for personal data.
 System life cycle
 Information systems are developed within a planned continuous cycle that covers
the initial development of the system through to its scheduled updating or
redevelopment. Each phase of development is organised into separate stages.
 New technologies
As the information industry changes so rapidly, it is important to keep track of new
and emerging technologies and consider how they might affect everyday life.
 Guided learning hours
 Guided learning hours give an indication of the amount of contact time teachers
need to have with learners to deliver a particular course. Our syllabuses are
designed around 180 guided learning hours for Cambridge International AS Level,
and around 360 guided learning hours for Cambridge International A Level.
 These figures are for guidance only. The number of hours needed to gain the
qualification may vary depending on local practice and the learners’ previous
experience of the subject.
2 – Assessment Structure
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Data Information
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Encryption Accuracy
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For Cambridge International AS and A Level Information

Technology, candidates:
 take Papers 1 and 2 only (for the Cambridge
International AS Level qualification)
 or
 follow a staged assessment route by taking Papers 1
and 2 (for Cambridge International AS Level
qualification) in one series, then Papers 3 and 4 (for
Cambridge International A Level qualification) in a later
series
 or
 take Papers 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the same examination
series, leading to the full Cambridge International A
Level.
All components are externally assessed.
2 – Assessment Structure
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Component Weighting
AS Level A Level
Paper 1 Theory 1 hour 45 minutes 50% 25%
 This written paper tests sections 1–10 of the syllabus
content.
 Candidates answer each question in the spaces
provided on the question paper. All questions are
compulsory.
 90 marks

Paper 2 Practical 2 hours 30 minutes 50% 25%

 This paper tests sections 8–10 of the syllabus
content. Candidates will also need to use their
previous knowledge from sections 1–7.
 All tasks are compulsory.
 Candidates must use the most appropriate software
and the most appropriate methods.
 110 marks
2 – Assessment Structure
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Component Weighting
AS Level A Level
Paper 3 Advanced Theory 1 hour 45 minutes - 25%
 This written paper tests sections 11–19 of the syllabus
content. The content of sections 1–10 is assumed
knowledge.
 Candidates answer each question in the spaces provided
on the question paper. All questions are compulsory.
 90 marks

Paper 4 Advanced Practical 2 hours 30 minutes - 25%

 This paper tests sections 16–19 of the syllabus content,
and sections 8–9 of the syllabus content within a problem-
solving context. Candidates will also need to use their
previous knowledge from all sections of the syllabus. All
tasks are compulsory.
 Candidates must use the most appropriate software and
the most appropriate methods.
 110 marks
2 – Grade Descriptors – Grade A
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To achieve a Grade A, a candidate will be able to:

• recall and communicate precise knowledge and display comprehensive
understanding of scientific phenomena, facts, laws, definitions, concepts and
theories
• apply scientific concepts and theories to present reasoned explanations of
familiar and unfamiliar phenomena, to solve complex problems involving
several stages, and to make reasoned predictions and hypotheses
• communicate and present complex scientific ideas, observations and data
clearly and logically, independently using scientific terminology and
conventions consistently and correctly
• independently select, process and synthesise information presented in a
variety of ways, and use it to draw valid conclusions and discuss the scientific,
technological, social, economic and environmental implications
• devise strategies to solve problems in complex situations which may involve
many variables or complex manipulation of data or ideas through multiple
steps
• analyse data to identify any patterns or trends, taking account of limitations in
the quality of the data and justifying the conclusions reached select, describe,
justify and evaluate techniques for a large range of scientific operations and
laboratory procedures.
3 – Assessment Objectives
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 Cambridge International AS and A Level Information Technology has three

assessment objectives:
 AO1 Recall, select and communicate knowledge and understanding of IT
 AO2 Apply knowledge, understanding and skills to produce IT-based
solutions
 AO3 Analyse, evaluate, make reasoned judgements and present
conclusions
2.3 Relationship between assessment objectives and components
 The approximate weightings allocated to each of the assessment objectives
are summarised below.
Component AO1 % AO2 % AO3 %
Question Paper 1 Theory 50 32 18
Question Paper 2 Practical 5 90 5
Question Paper 3 Advanced Theory 32 40 28
Question Paper 4 Advanced Practical 10 85 5
 The table shows the assessment objectives (AO) as a percentage of each
component.
01 – Data, information, knowledge and processing - Syllabus Content
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Candidates should be able to:

 1.1 Data, information and knowledge
 define data, clearly identifying that data has no meaning
 define information and show how data can become information through
context and meaning
 define knowledge and understand that information becomes knowledge
when human experience is applied
 1.2 Sources of data
 define static data and give an example
 define dynamic data and give an example
 compare the use of static information sources with dynamic information
sources
 define direct and indirect data source
 understand the advantages and disadvantages of gathering data from
direct and indirect data sources
 1.3 Quality of information
 understand how accuracy, relevance, age, level of detail and
completeness of the information can affect its quality
01 – Data, information, knowledge and processing - Syllabus Content
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Candidates should be able to:

 1.4 Coding, encoding and encrypting data
 describe the coding of data (including: M for male, F for female) and more intricate
codes (including: clothing type, sizes and colour of garment)
 discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the coding of data
 evaluate the need for encoding data and analyse the different methods that can be
used to encode data (including: codecs)
 define encryption and describe different methods of encryption (including:
symmetric, asymmetric, public key, private key)
 evaluate the need for encryption and how it can be used to protect data such as on a
hard disk, email or in HTTPS websites
 discuss encryption protocols (including: the purpose of Secure Socket Layer
(SSL)/Transport Layer Security (TLS) and the use of SSL/TLS in client server
communication)
 1.5 Checking the accuracy of data
 define validation and analyse a range of validation methods (including: presence
check, range check, type check, length check, format check and check digit, lookup
check, consistency check, limit check)
 define verification and analyse verification methods (including: visual checking and
double data entry)
 explain the need for both validation and verification
 define proof reading
01 – Learning Objectives
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 By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

 define the differences between data, information and knowledge
 define static and dynamic data
 compare static information sources with dynamic information sources
 define direct and indirect data sources
 understand the advantages and disadvantages of gathering data from
direct and indirect data sources
 understand how the accuracy, relevance, age, level of detail and
completeness of information can affect its quality
 describe the coding of data and discuss its advantages and disadvantages
 evaluate the need to encode data and analyse different methods for
encoding data
 define encryption and describe different methods of encryption
 evaluate the need for encryption and how it can be used to protect data
 discuss encryption protocols
 define validation and analyse a range of validation methods
 define verification and analyse verification methods
 explain the need for both validation and verification
 define proof reading
1.01 – Data, Information and Knowledge
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Data Key Terms

!
 Data is raw numbers, letters, symbols, Data: raw numbers, letters,
sounds or images with no meaning. symbols, sounds or images
without meaning
Example Information: data with
P952BR context and meaning
@bbcclick Knowledge: information to
359 which human experience has
23557.99. been applied

Figure 1.01 - Example of raw data Discussion Point

!
When answering a question
 The data P952BR could have several such as ‘Give one item of
meanings. It could possibly be: data’, do not try to explain
 a product code what the data means because
 a postal/ZIP code it then becomes information.
 a car registration number. Just give the raw numbers,
 As it is not known what the data means, it is letters, symbols or image.
meaningless.
1.01 – Data, Information and Knowledge
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Information
 When data items are given context and meaning, they become information. A
person reading the information will then know what it means.
 Data is given context by identifying what sort of data it is. This still does not
make it information but it is a step on the way to it becoming information as
shown in the next example.
Example
Data Context Comment
P952BR A product This is a product code but it is still not known
code what it is a product code for so it is still data.
@bbcclick A Twitter This is an address used for Twitter but it is not
handle information unless it is known to be a Twitter
handle or used within Twitter software. It’s also
not known whose address it is.
359 Price in This is a currency value but it is not known
Pakistani what the price is for, so it is still data.
Rupees
1.01 – Data, Information and Knowledge
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 For the data to become information, it needs to be

given meaning. Information is useful because it
means something.
Example

Data Context Comment

P952BR A product A product code for a can of noodles.
code
@bbcclick A Twitter The Twitter address for the BBC’s weekly
handle technology show, Click, which is worth
watching on BBC World News and BBC2
to keep up to date with technology.
359 Price in The price of a mobile phone cover.
Pakistani
Rupees
1.01 – Data, Information and Knowledge
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Knowledge Example
 Knowledge is basically what a person Information Knowledge
knows. This is known as their knowledge
l00km/h is the Travelling at
base. A knowledge base gets larger
speed limit on 120km/h on
overtime as a person gains experience or expressways in expressways in
learning. Pakistan. Pakistan is
 Knowledge requires a person to understand illegal.
what information is, based on their
experience and Knowledge base. A red traffic
 Crown Prince Salman was appointed Crown light means a
car should stop.
Prince of Saudi Arabia on 18 June 2012.
This is information. Knowing that he had
been Crown Prince for 2 years on 1 August Figure 1.02 - A
2014 is knowledge. red traffic light.
 Knowledge allows data to be interpreted. In
359 Pakistani The price of a
computing terms, Knowledge is also what a
rupees is the mobile phone
machine knows through the use of a price of a mobile cover is more
knowledge base consisting of rules and phone cover. expensive than
facts, often found in knowledge-based a cup of coffee.
systems, modelling and simulation software.
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Questions Example
Information Knowledge
A company creates l00km/h is the Travelling at
websites using style sheets. speed limit on 120km/h on
expressways in expressways in
1. Identify one item of data Pakistan. Pakistan is
illegal.
that will be used by the
A red traffic
company. light means a
car should stop.
2. Describe how this item
of data can become Figure 1.02 - A
red traffic light.
information.
359 Pakistani The price of a
3. Describe the term rupees is the mobile phone
knowledge. price of a mobile
phone cover.
cover is more
expensive than
a cup of coffee.
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Answers
1. For example 00000000 (there must be
no explanation, just the data)
2. For example, context is added to
00000000 because we are told it is a
colour code. Meaning is added by telling
us it is the colour code for black.
3. Knowledge is applying experience to
information so that the information can
be interpreted.
1.02 – Sources of Data
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Static Data Key Terms

!
 Static means ‘still’. It is data that does not normally Static data: data
change. Static data is either fixed or has to be that does not
changed manually by editing a document. normally change
Figure 1.03 - A Dynamic data: data
good example of that changes
static data. automatically without
user intervention
Direct data source:
data that is collected
for the purpose for
Example
which it will be used
 title of a web page Indirect data
 magazines source: data that
 CD-ROMs was collected for a
 column headings for a football league table different purpose
(e.g. P, W, D, L, F, A, GD) (secondary source)
 instructions on a data entry screen.
1.02 – Sources of Data
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Dynamic data Example

 Dynamic means  live sports results on a website (when a goal
‘moving’. It is data that is scored, the scores will update on the
updates as a result of website)
the source data  news feeds on a mobile phone app (when the
news is changed in the main database, the
changing. Dynamic data
news feed will be updated on the phone)
is updated automatically  availability of tickets for a concert (when
without user intervention. somebody books a ticket, the ticket is no
longer available)
 product prices for a till/point of sale (if a price
is reduced or increased in the database, this
new price will be used the next time the
barcode is scanned)
 train expected arrival times (these will update
automatically based on the train’s position)
Figure 1.04 - This weather map,  profit for a product in a spreadsheet (profit =
from the Met Office website, is price - cost so when either the price or cost
an example of dynamic data. changes, then the profit changes too)
1.02 – Sources of Data
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Static information sources compared with dynamic information sources

Static information source Dynamic information source
The information does not change on a Information is updated automatically
regular basis when the original data changes
The information can go out of date It is most likely to be up to date as it
quickly because it is not designed to be changes automatically based on the
changed on a regular basis. source data.
The information can be viewed offline An internet or network connection to
because live data is not required. the source data is required, which
can be costly and can also be slow in
remote areas.
It is more likely to be accurate because The data may have been produced
time will have been taken to check the very quickly and so may contain
information being published, as it will be errors.
available for a long period of time.

Table 1.03 - Static and dynamic information sources.

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TASK Discussion Point

Look at the BBC  Some people get a little confused by dynamic
News website http:// data because they think it can be any data that
www.bbc.com/news changes at anytime. E.g., some people think that
and identify which any website includes dynamic data.
data is static and  However, if you look at http://
which data is dynamic www.bbc.co.uk/contact page, the information on
(updates this page is mainly static, with links to other
automatically). pages. Although it can be changed, it can only be
done by changing the actual data on the page,
whereas dynamic data changes because the
original source has changed.
 If you look at http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio, you will
see that most of the information on this page is
sourced from program schedules and program
information, which will be stored in another
database. This makes it dynamic data because it
will update when a new program is scheduled.
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Direct Data Source Example

 Data collected from a direct data source
A sports shop wants to find
(primary source) must be used for the same out what other shops are
purpose for which it was collected. It is often charging for trainers. There
the case that the data will have been are various direct sources
collected or requested by the person who that this data can be
intends to use the data. collected from. These could
 The data must not already exist for another include:
 visiting the other shops
purpose though. When collecting the data,
and noting down the
the person collecting should know for what prices
purpose they intend to use the data.  visiting the other shops’
websites and noting down
the prices
 carrying out a survey of
other shop owners to ask
their prices (although they
Figure 1.05 – Direct are unlikely to want to give
data source. these).
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Indirect Data Source Example

 Data collected from an The sports shop could use various
indirect data source indirect sources to find out what other
shops are charging for trainers
(secondary source) already including:
existed for another purpose.  carrying out a survey of customers
Although it can still be who have purchased trainers from
the other shops (the price was
collected by the person who originally given to the customer for
intends to use it, it was often the purpose of selling the trainers
collected by a different which may have been given on a
person or organisation. different date to when it is now being
used or it may have been
discounted at the time)
 looking at till receipts from the shop
(the price is printed on the till receipt
Figure 1.06 – for the purpose of providing proof of
Indirect data purchase, not for identifying prices).
source.
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Advantages and disadvantages of gathering data from direct and indirect data sources
 The general rule is that data collected directly for the purpose for which it is intended is more
likely to be accurate and relevant than data that is obtained from existing data (indirect
source).
Direct data source Indirect data source
The data will be relevant because what is needed Additional data that is not required will exist that
has been collected. may take time to sort through and some data
that is required may not exist.
The original source is known and so can be trusted. The original source may not be known and so it
can’t be assumed that it is reliable.
It can take a long time to gather original data rather The data is immediately available.
than use data that already exists.
A large sample of statistical data can be difficult to If statistical analysis is required, then there are
collect for one-off purposes. more likely to be large samples available.
The data is likely to be up to date because it has Data may be out of date because it was
been collected recently. collected at a different time.
Bias can be eliminated by asking specific Original data may be biased due to its source.
questions.
The data can be collected and presented in the The data is unlikely to be in the format required,
format required. which may make extracting the data difficult.
Table 1.02 - Direct and indirect data sources.
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Task
Which of the following are direct data sources and which are indirect data sources?
Data Reason Collected Reason Used
Names and email To record their membership To contact members by email
addresses of members and to be able to contact to see if they will donate some
of a political party them. money.
Employee attendance To identify when employees To allow a police officer to
dates and times attended work and to check an employee’s alibi if a
calculate their wages. crime has been committed.
Flight times and prices To compare the prices and To decide the best flight to use
from airline websites times for a trip to Florida. for a trip to Florida.
Names, ages and Fora national census. To allow a marketing company
addresses of people to find out which areas have
the highest population of
children.
Weather To record the current To show the current
measurements from a weather. temperature and rainfall on a
weather station website.
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Questions Discussion Point

The spreadsheet right  Remember that direct
is used to calculate the data is usually used by the
area of a driveway. person that collected it
and for the purpose they
collected it. However, it’s
Figure 1.07 - Part of a spreadsheet.
also possible for a person
4. Identify one item of data that is static.
to collect data from an
5. Identify one item of data that is dynamic.
indirect (secondary)
The builder using the spreadsheet needs to
source.
know the length and width of a driveway for a
 E.g., if a journalist is
customer.
writing a news article and
6. Identify one direct source the builder could
bases his story on existing
use to find the length and width.
news articles, then he has
7. Identify one indirect source the builder could
used indirect sources
use to find the length and width.
rather than interviewing
8. Give one advantage of using the direct
the people involved in the
source instead of the indirect source to find
original story.
the length and width.
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Questions

4. Area calculator, Length=, Area=, m, m2

(not 3, 5 or 15)
5. 15 (not 3, 5)
6. For example, measure it himself.
7. For example, accept measurements
given by the customer.
8. For example he can rely on the
measurements he has taken himself to
be accurate.
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 The quality of information is Example

determined by a number of Examples of inaccurate
attributes. information include:
Accuracy  decimal point in the
 Information that is inaccurate is wrong place, for example
$90.30 instead of
clearly not good enough. Data $903.00 could suggest a
must be accurate in order to be product is much cheaper
considered of good quality. than it really is
 Imagine being told that you need to  misspelling such as ‘stair’
instead of ‘stare’, where
check in at the airport 45 minutes words have completely
before the flight leaves, so you turn different meanings
up at 18:10 for a 19:05 flight only  misplaced characters,
to find that you were actually such as a licence plate of
supposed to check in one hour BW9EP3T instead of
BW93PET.
early.
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Relevance Example
 Information must be relevant Examples of irrelevant information include:
to its purpose. Having  being given a bus timetable when you
additional information that is want to catch a train
not required means that the  being told the rental price of a car when
user has to search through you want to buy the car
the data to find what is  a user guide for a mobile phone that
actually required. includes instructions on how to assemble
a plug.
Age
 Information must be up to Example
date in order to be useful. Examples of out of date information include:
Old information is likely to be  the number of residents in a town based
out of date and therefore no on a census from 2011, but 500 new
longer useful. homes have been built in the town since
 When using indirect data then
sources, always check when  a rugby score that has not been updated
the information was for 5 minutes during which time a player
produced. scored.
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Completeness Task
 All information that is
required must be provided
in order for it to be of good
quality. Not having all the
information required means
it cannot be used properly.
Example

 A person has booked their

car in for a service over the Figure 1.08 - Birthday party invitation.
phone. The mechanic tells Look at the invitation above.
Describe how accuracy, relevance,
them the name of the street level of detail and completeness
but doesn’t give the building affect the quality of information in the
number. invitation.
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Questions

9. Identify three factors that could

affect the quality of
information.
10. Describe how the age of
information could affect the
quality of information within a
user guide for a mobile phone.
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Answers

9. Accuracy, relevance, age

level of detail, completeness.
10. The user guide could be
written for an old operating
system that has since been
updated on the phone.
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Key Terms
!
Coding data
Coding: representing
 You are probably very familiar with data by assigning a code
coding data already. When you to it for classification or
send a text message or instant identification
Encoding: storing data in
message you probably code your a specific format
data. You might use codes like: Encryption: scrambling
data so it cannot be
 LOL = laugh out loud understood without a
 ROFL = roll on floor laughing decryption key to make it
 FYI = for your information unreadable if intercepted
SSL: Secure Sockets
 BTW = by the way Layer
 2 = to TLS: Transport Layer
 4 = for Security HTTPS:
hypertext transfer
 BRB = be right back. protocol secure
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Coding data
 In a similar way, data stored on a
computer can be coded. Coding is the
process of representing data by
assigning a code to it for classification or
identification.
 Often genders are coded as M for male
and F for female. Clothing can be coded
by the type, size and colour:
 DR = dress Figure 1.09 – Text
 2XL = extra extra large message on a
mobile phone
 BL = b!ue
 DR2XLBL = a dress in size extra extra
large and colour blue.
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Example
 Using abbreviations
 Using numbers for for international
international dialling vehicle registration
codes: plates:
 44 = Great Britain  GB = Great Britain
 33 = France  F = France
 49 = Germany  D = Germany
 34 = Spain (Deutschland)
 93 = Afghanistan  E = Spain (Esparia)
 971 = United Arab  AFG = Afghanistan
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Advantages and Task

disadvantages of coding data Create a coding system for clothing
 There are a number of that includes the type of clothing, size,
colour and other information that you
reasons for coding data. In think is relevant.
the examples used above, it Show it to a friend.
would take a longtime to use  Can they interpret the code
all the letters of a country to efficiently?
 Did you have any duplicate codes?
dial a telephone number and
 Do you think the sizes would be
there would not be enough understood by potential customers?
space on the rear of a car to
display the full country Task
name. Create a coding system for the names
 The advantages of coding of people in your class. Show it to a
data can be summarised as friend. Can they interpret the code
efficiently? Did you have any duplicate
shown in Table 1.03 next. codes?
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Presentation Data can be presented in small spaces, such as on labels or when

listing large amounts of data.
Storage Less storage space is required because less characters are used to
store the data.
Speed of Data can be input more quickly because only a few numbers or
Input letters need to be input instead of whole words or phrases.
Processing Processors can process data more quickly because they only have
to process the coded data instead of the whole word or phrase.
Validation It’s possible to validate data by checking it is a particular length or
within a certain range or matching other rules. For example, an
international vehicle registration code must be a maximum of three
letters and not contain any numbers or symbols.
Confidentiality Sometimes data can be coded so that it only makes sense to
people who know what the codes mean.
Consistency If the correct codes are used then data will be input consistently
without spelling errors, making it easier to be searched or
summarised.
Table 1.03 - Advantages of coding.
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Limited There may not be enough codes available to use, meaning that more letters
codes or numbers need to be added. E.g., with international vehicle registration
codes, E is already used for Spain and so Egypt has to use ET and Ecuador
has to use EC. Now that Egypt has taken ET, Ethiopia can’t use it and so has
to use ETH.
Interpretation Codes may be difficult to interpret. For example, with international vehicle
registration codes, somebody might look at ET and assume it is Ethiopia or
look at S and assume it is Spain. It’s even more difficult when considering
international dialling codes that are represented by numbers.
Similarity Some letters and numbers can be difficult to distinguish such as 0 and 0 or Z
and 2, especially if handwritten. With codes, it’s difficult to guess what the
value might be and so mistakes can occur. At least with words it’s possible to
guess what the badly written letter might be.
Efficiency If a user inputting codes does not know what code to use, then they will not
be able to enter the data efficiently. Instead they will have to look up the code.
Missing It’s possible that some information gets lost during the process of coding.
information E.g., if devices on a network are coded as L for laptop, P for printer, D for
desktop computer and M for mobile phone, then information about whether or
not the mobile phone or laptop is touch screen is lost.

Table 1.04 - Disadvantages of coding.

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Encoding data Character Decimal Binary

 When data is encoded, it is stored in a Number Number
specific format. Computers do not recognise @ 64 01000000
text, sound and images in the same way we
A 65 01000001
do. Computers use binary digits which are Is
and Os. One means on and zero means off. B 66 1000010
 A typical binary number would look like this: C 67 1000011
11011010. Therefore, data needs to be a 97 01100001
encoded into a format which the computer
understands. Codecs are programs that are b 98 01100010
used to encode data for images, audio and c 99 01100011
video. The codecs are also needed to read
the data. Table 1.05 - ASCII code table.
Text
 Text is encoded as a number that is then
represented by a binary number. A common
encoding method is ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange).
ASCII consists of 256 codes from 0 to 255.
Here is a subset of the ASCII code table:
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 There are other Task

Visit the website www.ascii-code.com
encoding methods, too, and look at the ASCII code table. What
such as extended ASCII sentence does the following ASCII
which allows for more code represent?

characters to be used, Task

particularly for 084 104 101 032 098 105 103 032 098
097 100 032 119 111 108 102 033
international languages. Visit the website
 Other encoding methods www.unicode.org/charts or
include Unicode and www.unicode-table.com.
Choose a language script and then
EBCDIC but you don’t choose a short sentence (less than ten
need to learn about words). Encode your sentence into
UNICODE. Now show the Unicode to a
these.1.03 next. friend and see if they can convert it
back into the original sentence.
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Images
 Encoding is also used to store images. At the most basic level,
images are encoded as bitmaps. A Microsoft Windows bitmap
includes the following data when encoding an image (this is not
the complete list):
 width of bitmap
 height of bitmap
bit count which represents number of colours:
o 1 = monochrome 4 = 16 colours 8=
256 colours
16 = 65536 colours 24 = 16 million colours
 compression type (no compression, eight-bit run-length
encoding or four-bit run-length encoding)
 horizontal resolution in pixels per metre
 vertical resolution in pixels per metre
 raster data (the actual shape of the image in pixels).
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Images
 For the raster data, we will assume a monochrome image (black and
white). Each bit will represent either a black or white pixel. A byte
consists of eight bits and so will represent eight pixels. The encoding
starts from the bottom left of the image, works to the right-hand side
and then up to the next row and again from left to right hand side.

Figure 1.10 - Empty raster grid.

 As the image gets bigger, it takes up a lot of storage space. Therefore

a method called run-length encoding (RLE) can be used to reduce the
amount of storage space that is used. This is known as compression.
RLE takes consecutive values and combines them together.
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Example
 The following image is 16 pixels wide and 6 pixels high. Its bit count (colour
depth) is 1 so it is monochrome. There is no compression. The pixels in the
image look like this:
Figure 1.11 – Filled Raster Grid

 Imagine at 1 each time there is a black pixel and a zero each time there is a
white pixel, but remember the encoding starts at the bottom left.

Figure 1.12 – Filled Raster Grid

with Binary Digits
 Starting at the bottom left, the raster data to be stored would be:
00001111 11110000 00000111 11100000
00000011 11000000
00000001 10000000 00000000 00000000
00011111 11111000
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Example
 This time we are going to use a bit count (colour depth) of 4 so the image can
have up to 16 colours. Each byte stores two pixels. The byte consists of two
bit patterns such as 1100 1010. The first but pattern is the first pixel and the
second bit pattern is the second pixel. Each bit pattern represents the colour
to be used for the pixel.
 The following image is 16 pixels wide and 6 pixels high. Its bit count (colour
depth) is 4 so it has up to 16 colours. It uses four bits to store each pixel.
There is no compression. The pixels in the image look like this:

Figure 1.13 – Filled colour raster grid

 Each byte (eight bits) represents two pixels. The colours in this example are
represented by the following bit patterns:
Black = 1111 White = 0000 Blue = 0001 Green = 0010
Yellow = 0011 Red = 0100
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Example

Figure 1.13 – Filled colour raster grid

 The bit pattern is added to represent the colour of each pixel:

Figure 1.14 – Filled colour raster grid with binary digits

 Starting at the bottom left, the raster encoding for the bottom two rows would
be:
00000000 00000000 01000100 01000100 01000100
01000100 00000000 00000000
00000000 00000000 00000011 00110011 00110011
00110000 00000000 00000000
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Example

 As the image gets bigger, it takes up a lot of storage space. Therefor a

method called run-length encoding (RLE) can be used to reduce the amount
of storage space that is used. This is known as compression. RLE takes
consecutive values and combines them together. At a basic level, the image
above has ten black pixels in a row. Instead of storing ten separate pixels,
RLE would store the quantity and colour, e.g. ten X black X 1111.
 Sometimes when files are compressed,
the use lossy compression, which means
some of the original data is removed and
the quality is reduced. E.g. Figure 1.15
shows how the quality of an mage can
be reduced if lossy compression is used.

Figure 1.15 – Lossy compression

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Sound Task
 When sound is encoded, the sample rate, Images can be encoded
bit depth and bit rate are stored. When into a variety of different
sound is recorded, it is converted from its file types. Find out what
original analogue format into a digital the purpose of each of
format, which is broken down into the following file types is:
thousands of samples per second.  JPEG/JPG (Joint
 The sample rate, also known as the Photographic Experts
frequency, is the number of audio samples Group)
per second. The higher the sample rate, the  GIF (Graphics
higher the quality of the music, but also the Interchange Format)
 PNG (Portable
more storage that is required.
 Each sample is stored as binary data. The Network Graphics)
 SVG (Scalable Vector
sample rate is measured in hertz (Hz).
Graphics)
Typically, music on a CD will use a sample
rate of 44.1 kHz (kilohertz) whereas a
simple telephone call would find 8 kHz
sufficient.
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Sound Example
 The bit depth is the number of  A CD sound file has a sample rate of 44.1 kHz
bits (1’s and 0’s) used for each (44100 Hz), a bit depth of 16 bits and two
sound clip. A higher bit depth channels (left and right for stereo).
bit rate = 44100 x 16 x 2 = 1411200 bps = 1.4
will give a higher quality
mbps (megabits per second)
sound. CDs use a bit depth of  That means that 1.4 megabits are required to
16 which means 16 bits (0’s store every second of audio. Therefore, we
and 1’s) are used. 16 bits can multiply the bit rate by the number of
seconds to find the file size. So for a 3 minute
gives 65536 combinations of 30 second audio file (210 seconds):
binary storage. file size (in bits) = 1,411,200 x 210 = 296,352,000
 The bit rate is the number of (296 megabits)
bits that are processed every  There are eight bits in a byte and we use
bytes to measure storage, so the file size in
second. It is measured in bits is divided by eight:
kilobits per second (kbps). The  file size (in bytes) = 296,352,000 + 8 =
bit rate is calculated using this 37,044,000 bytes = 37 MB (megabytes)
calculation:
bit rate = sample rate x bit
depth x number of channels
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Sound Task
 The encoding method above does not Calculate the file
compress the file and a typical storage size of a sound file
format is WAV (Waveform Audio File with the following
properties:
Format), which is used on PCs.  sample rate =
 However, music files are often compressed 8000bps
to allow for efficient streaming across the  bit depth = 16
internet and to enable lots of music files to  channels = 1
be stored on a single storage medium.
Compression reduces the file size.
 There are two types of compression: lossy
compression and lossless compression.
Lossless compression reduces the file size
Click Here
without losing any quality, but it can only
reduce the file size by about 50%.
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Sound Example
 Lossy compression reduces  A CD file originally has a bit
rate of 1.4 Mbps (1411200
the file size by reducing the bit
bps). This is reduced to 128
rate, which means that some kbps (128,000 kbps). The
of the quality is lost. Most original file size was 37 MB.
human ears won’t be able to To calculate the change in
file size, divide by the
detect the loss in quality, but original bit rate and multiply
an experienced musician by the new bit rate.
would notice.  Compressed file size = 37
 When compressing an audio + 1,411,200 x 128,000
= 3.36 MB.
file, it is possible to choose  In this example, the file size
the bit rate. A bit rate of 128 has been reduced to
approximately 10% of the
kbps is equivalent to what
original size.
would be heard on the radio.
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Video
 When video is encoded it needs to store images as well as sound.
Images are stored as frames. A standard quality video would normally
have 24 frames per second (fps). High definition (HD) uses 50fps and
60fps. The higher the number of frames per second, the more storage
that is required, but the higher quality the video will be.
 The size of the image is also important. A HD video will have an image
size of 1920 pixels wide and 1080 pixels high. The higher the image
size, the more storage that is required. Other common resolutions
include:
 7680 x 4320 (8K/ ultra high definition) Click Here
 3840 x 2160 (4K/ ultra high definition)
 1024 x 768 (Extended Graphics Array (XGA) - often used with digital
projectors)
 1280 x 720 (Wide Extended Graphics Array (WXGA) - wide screen)
 800 x 600 (Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA))
 480 x 320 (useful for mobile phones where the screen is smaller and
internet bandwidth could be low).
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Video
 The bit rate for videos combines both the audio and frames that need to be
processed every second. The bit rate is the number of bits that need to be
processed every second. A higher frame rate requires a higher bit rate.
 A one hour, eight-bit HD video with 24fps
would require 334GB (gigabytes) of storage.
This would be far too much data to download
or even broadcast. Therefore, compression is
required. Compression usually involves
reducing the:
 resolution
 image size or
 bit rate. Estimated file size: 58.14 MB per
 These all result in lossy compression. A minute of video
common lossy compression format is MP4, Figure 1.12 - Video and audio
which is a codec created by MPEG (Moving settings.
Pictures Expert Group). There are also
lossless compression methods such as digital
video (DV).
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Advantages and disadvantages of encoding data Task

 Data has to be encoded in order to be stored and
Edit a short video
processed by a computer system. It is essential
using video editing
that data :s encoded into binary digits (1’s and
software. Try saving
0’s).
 One purpose of encoding data is often to reduce it with different
resolutions,
the file size. The advantages of reducing the file
different frame
size include: rates and different
 enabling real-time streaming of music and
audio formats.
video over restricted bandwidth (e.g. home Compare the file
broadband, mobile broadband) sizes of each video
 reducing the time taken to download files file that is created.
 faster downloading of websites with images,
music or video
 enabling more music and video to be stored
on CDs, DVDs, flash memory and other
storage media.
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Advantages and disadvantages of encoding data

 Another purpose of encoding is to enable different formats to be used.
The advantages of different formats for images include:
 formats such as PNG and GIF enabling transparent backgrounds
 formats such as GIF allowing animated images
 formats such as JPG allowing a very large colour depth, meaning
that the image will be of high quality
 formats such as bitmap image file (BMP) including all the original
uncompressed data so that the image is of the highest possible
quality and can be manipulated
 formats that are designed for specific software such as Paint Shop
Pro and Photoshop containing layers which allow for various
adjustments to be made to the image and being able to enable or
remove those layers
 vector formats such as SVG storing the shapes rather than the
pixels so that graphics can be enlarged and reduced without loss of
quality due to pixelation.
Click Here
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Advantages and disadvantages of encoding data Task

 The main disadvantage of encoding data is the Compare the file
variety of encoding methods, resulting in a large types that can be
variety of file types. Problems include: opened and saved
 the required codecs may not be installed and so a using different
file cannot be saved in the desired format graphics software
 the necessary codecs must be installed, in order packages.
to open an encoded file
 not all software is capable of opening different file types Click Here
 some hardware such as music and video players only play files encoded
in certain formats (for example, a CD player may only be able to play
MP3 files but not Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) or Advanced
Audio Coding (AAC) audio files)
 quality of images, sound and videos is lost when files are compressed
using lossy compression
 text that has been encoded using ASCII or UNICODE needs to be
decoded using the correct format when it is opened. If some international
characters have been included using UNICODE and the file is opened as
an ASCII file, then the international characters will not be recognised.
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Encryption
 One specific type of encoding is encryption. This is when data is scrambled
so that it cannot be understood. The purpose of encryption is to make the
data difficult or impossible to read if it is accessed by an unauthorised user.
Data can be encrypted when it is stored on disks or other storage media, or
it can be encrypted when it is sent across a network such as a local area
network or the internet. Accessing encrypted data legitimately is known as
decryption.
Caesar cipher
 A cipher is a secret way of writing. In other words it is a code. Ciphers are
used to convert a message into an encrypted message. It is a special type
of algorithm which defines the set of rules to follow to encrypt a message.
Roman Emperor Julius Caesar created the Caesar cipher so that he could
communicate in secret with his generals.
 The Caesar cipher is sometimes known as a shift cipher because it selects
replacement letters by shifting along the alphabet.
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Discussion Point
!
Figure 1.13 - The Enigma machine.
 The Germans used encrypted messages during World War II
using the Enigma machine. An operator would type in a
message and then scramble it by using three to five notched
wheels. The recipient would need to know the exact settings
of the wheels in order to decipher the message. There were
159 x 1018 possible combinations.
 Encrypted messages from the Lorenz cipher machine led to
the development of the world’s first electric programmable computer,
Colossus, which helped British code breakers read encrypted German
messages.
 The first major encryption algorithm for computers was the Data
Encryption Standard (DES) used in the 1970s. It used a 56-bit (1’s and 0’s)
key. This offered 70 x 1015 possible combinations, but the development of
computers meant that it eventually became possible to ‘crack’ the code.
This was replaced by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) which
uses up to 256-bit keys. This can offer 300 x 10n possible combinations.
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Task Example
1. Using the Caesar cipher +3  In this example the alphabet is to
example previously, write an be shifted by three (+3) letters so
encrypted message to a friend. that A =D, B = E and so on:
Ask your friend to decipher it.
2. Choose how many letters you
are going to shift by and write  So to encrypt the word ‘Hello’, we
another encrypted message to would use:
a friend. Don’t tell your friend H = K, E=H,L = 0,0 = R which
how many letters you shifted gives KHOOR.
by. Your friend should try to
decipher the code by working
out which letters appear most
commonly.
3. Click here to create a cipher
wheel and use it to encrypt and
decrypt messages.
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Symmetric encryption Sender

 This is the oldest method of encryption. It Sender
Encrypts
Encrypts
requires both the sender and recipient to using
using Recipient
Recipient
possess the secret encryption and decryption secret
secret key
key Decrypts
Decrypts
key. With symmetric encryption, the secret key
using
using the
the
needs to be sent to the recipient. This could be
same
same
done at a separate time, but it still has to be
secret
secret key
key
transmitted whether by post or over the internet
and it could be intercepted. Figure 1.14 - Symmetric
Asymmetric encryption encryption.
 Asymmetric encryption is also known as public-
Sender
Sender Recipient
Recipient
key cryptography. Asymmetric encryption
Encrypts
Encrypts Decrypts
Decrypts
overcomes the problem of symmetric encryption
using
using using
using same
same
keys being intercepted by using a pair of keys.
recipients
recipients algorithm
algorithm
This will include a public key which is available
public
public key
key using
using their
their
to anybody wanting to send data, and a private
key that is known only to the recipient. They key matching
matching
is the algorithm required to encrypt and decrypt private
private key
key
the data. Figure 1.15 - Asymmetric
 The process works like this: encryption.
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 In the next example, Tomasz sends a

message to Helene. Tomasz encrypts the
message using Helene’s public key.
Helene receives the encrypted message
and decrypts it using her private key.
 This method requires a lot more
processing than symmetric encryption and
so it takes longer to decrypt the data.
 In order to find a public key, digital
certificates are required which identify the
user or server and provide the public key.
A digital certificate is unique to each user
or server.
 A digital certificate usually includes: Figure 1.16 - Asymmetric
 organisation name encryption example.
 organisation that issued the certificate
 user’s email address
 user’s country
 user’s public key.
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 When encrypted data is required by a

recipient, the computer will request the
digital certificate from the sender. The public
key can be found within the digital
certificate.
 Asymmetric encryption is used for Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL) which is the security
method used for secure websites. Transport
Layer Security (TLS) has superseded SSL Figure 1.16 - Asymmetric
but they are both often referred to as SSL. encryption example.
 Once SSL has established an
authenticated session, "e client and
server will create symmetric keys for
faster secure communication.
Task
Watch the video about SSL at:
http://info.ssl.com/article.aspx?id=10241 Click Here
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Hard disk
 Disk encryption will encrypt every single bit of data stored on a disk. This
is different to encrypting single files. In order to access any file on the
disk, the encryption key will be required. This type of encryption is not
limited to disks and can be used on other storage media such as backup
tapes and Universal Serial Bus (USB) flash memory.
 It is particularly important that USB flash memory and backup tapes are
encrypted because these are portable storage media and so are
susceptible to being lost or stolen. If the whole medium is encrypted,
then anybody trying to access the data will not be able to understand it.
The data is usually accessed
by entering a password
or using a fingerprint to
unlock the encryption.
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HTTPS
 Normal web pages that are not encrypted are fetched and transmitted
using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Anybody who intercepts web
pages or data being sent over HTTP would be able to read the contents of
the web page or the data. This is particularly a problem when sending
sensitive data, such as credit card information or usernames and
passwords.
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the encryption standard
used for secure web pages. It uses Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or
Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt and decrypt pages and
information sent and received by web users. This is the encryption method
that is used by banks when a user logs onto online banking. A secure web
page can be spotted by its address beginning with https://and in addition
some browsers display a small padlock.

Figure 1.17 - The ‘s’ after ‘http’ and the padlock indicate that this is a secure website.
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HTTPS
 When a browser requests a
secure page, it will check the
digital certificate to ensure that it is
trusted, valid and that the
certificate is related to the site
from which it is coming. Click Here
Skip the first 55 seconds
 The browser then uses the public
key to encrypt a new symmetric
key that is sent to the web server.
The browser and web server can
then communicate using a
symmetric encryption key, which is
much faster than asymmetric
encryption.
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Example
 The web browser requests the
certificate from the web server.
1 Browser
requests
certificate
Web Web
Browser Server

Figure 1.18 - Asymmetric cryptography.

 The web browser then uses the web
Figure 1.19 - Secure website server’s public key to encrypt a new
identification. symmetric key and sends that
encrypted symmetric key to the web
server. The web server uses its own
private key to decrypt the new
symmetric key.
Figure 1.20 - Symmetric encryption.  The browser and web server now
communicate using the same
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Email
 Email encryption uses asymmetric encryption.
This means that recipients of emails must have
the private key that matches the public key
used to encrypt the original email. In order for
this to work, both the sender and recipient need
to send each other a digitally signed message
that will add the person’s digital certificate to
the contact for that person. Encrypting an email
will also encrypt any attachments.
How encryption protects data
 Encryption only scrambles the data so that if it
is found, it cannot be understood. It does not
stop the data from being intercepted, stolen or
lost. However, with strong. 256-bit AES
encryption it is virtually impossible for
somebody to decrypt the data and so it is
effectively protected from prying eyes
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Discussion Point
!
 Most Wi-Fi access points and Wi-Fi routers use encryption. This serves two
purposes. The first is to only allow people who know the ‘key’ (usually a
password) to access the network, so that any unauthorised users cannot
gain access. The second is to encrypt the data, so that it cannot be
understood by somebody ‘snooping’ on the Wi-Fi network.
 Wi-Fi networks are particularly susceptible to ‘snooping’ because no wires
are required to connect to the network. It is possible to sit in a car outside
somebody’s house and see the Wi-Fi network. The ‘key’ stops that person
from accessing the network and also stops that person from understanding
the data that is moving around the network.
 Did you know that if you access a public
Wi-Fi hotspot that is ‘open’ and therefore
not encrypted that anybody with the right
software can see what you are sending
over the network, including your emails?
This applies to laptops, tablets and
mobile phones or any other device using public Wi-Fi.
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Questions
11. Give two reasons for encoding data.
12. Explain why encoding is necessary for
text.
13. Identify two factors that affect the size
of a sound file.
14. Decipher the following text that has
been encrypted using the Caesar
cipher with a shift of +4.
AIPPHSRI
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Answers
11. Saving storage space, enables validation,
can help with presentation of lists, speed of
input, speed of processing, confidentiality.
12. Computers can only understand on and off
(1 and 0), so text needs to be encoded into
a standard character set that uses numbers
represented by binary.
13. Sample rate, bit depth, number of
channels.
14. WELL DONE.
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Validation Key Terms

!
 Validation takes place when data Validation: the process of checking data
is input into a computer system. matches acceptable rules
The purpose is to ensure the data Verification: ensuring data entered into
is sensible and conforms to the system matches the original source
defined rules. A railway season Proof reading: checking information
ticket will have an expiry date. The manually
season ticket is valid until it
expires. Once it expires it is Task
invalid. The rule here is that the Create a flow chart to describe the process
date the season ticket is used of validation. You should include the
must be before its expiry date. following:
 When data is validated, if it • Start • End • Input of data
conforms to the rules then it will • Error message • Data accepted
be accepted. If it does not conform • Data rejected • Validation decision
There are a variety of different validation
to the rules, then it will be rejected
checks that can be used to check whether
and an error message will be
data is acceptable. These different checks
presented. Validation does not are the different types of rules that are used.
ensure that data is correct.
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Presence check
 A presence check is used to ensure that data
is entered. If data is entered, then it is
accepted. If data is not entered, then the user
will be presented with an error message
asking them to enter data.

Example
 When filling in a ‘contact us’ form on a website,
it is essential that an email address is entered. Figure 1.21 - Required data on a
website.
The following would be valid if only a presence
check is carried out:
 a
 a@b
 [email protected]
 @
 372823
 Notice that none of these are correct but they
pass the rule that data must be present.
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Range check Example

 A range check ensures that data is within a
 An opinion poll is taken and asks for
defined range. the respondent’s age. The respondents
 A limit check has a single boundary. This
have to be at least 18 years old. The
could be the highest possible value or the lower boundary is 18. There is no
lowest possible value. upper boundary, so this is a limit
 A range check includes two boundaries,
check. This could be written as:
which would be the lower boundary and
Age >= 18
the upper boundary. The following symbols  Letters representing grades for an
are used when comparing with a boundary:
exam are entered. Only the letters A-E
> greater than
are valid grades. The grade must be
< less than
less than F. The upper boundary is E.
>= greater than or equal to
There is no lower boundary, so this is a
<= less than or equal to
 Data that is within the boundaries is valid. limit check. This could be written as:
Grade < F
Data that is outside the boundaries is
 The number of students in a class
invalid. Data that is valid and within the
must be between 5 and 28. The lower
boundaries is not necessarily correct.
 A grade of C could be entered when a boundary is 5 and the upper boundary
is 28, so this is a range check. This
grade A should have been entered. C is
could be written as:
valid but incorrect.
Number of students >=5 and <= 28
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Type check Example

 A type check ensures that data must be of
 If an age is entered, it must
a defined data type. be an integer.
 Data that is of the correct data type is valid.
 If a grade is entered, it must
Data that is valid and of the correct data be text with no numbers.
type is not necessarily correct. A date of  If a price is entered, it must
birth of 28/12/2087 could be entered. The be numerical.
date is valid because it is a date data type,  If a date of birth is entered, it
but it is clearly incorrect. must be a date.
Length check
 A length check ensures data is of a defined
Example
length or within a range of lengths.
 Data that is of the allowed length is not  A password must be at least
necessarily correct. E.g., a valid date might six characters long.
require six digits. A date of 2nd Feb would  A grade must be exactly one
be a valid length because it contains six character long.
characters, but it would not be correct  A product code must be at
because it does not follow the required least four characters and no
format. more than six characters.
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Format check Example

 A format check ensures data  An email address must include an @
matches a defined format. It is symbol preceded by at least one character
sometimes known as a picture and followed by other characters. The
check and the data has to follow following data would be valid:
a pattern.  [email protected] [email protected] fdc@jb
 Data that matches the pattern is  A student ID must be four numbers followed
by two letters. The following data would be
valid. Data that is valid and of the valid: 3827BD or 1111AA
defined format is not necessarily
correct. An email address of Example
fdc@jb meets the rules above  When asking a user for their gender, they
but is clearly incorrect. can respond with ‘Male’ or ‘Female’.
Lookup check  A lookup validation rule would check to see
 A lookup check tests to see if that the values are within this list. Students
data exists in a list. It is similar to taking a qualification could be issued
referential integrity in Chapter 9, grades of pass, merit and distinction.
but uses a list defined within the  When inputting the data, a validation rule
could check that only ‘X’, ‘P’, ‘M’ or ‘D’ are
validation rule.
entered (‘X’ would be for fail).
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Lookup check Example

 A lookup check tests to  When asking a user for their gender, they can
see if data exists in a respond with ‘Male’ or ‘Female’. A lookup
list. It is similar to validation rule would check to see that the values
referential integrity in are within this list.
 Students taking a qualification could be issued
Chapter 9, but uses a
grades of pass, merit and distinction. When
list defined within the
inputting the data, a validation rule could check
validation rule. that only ‘X’, ‘P’, ‘M’ or ‘D’ are entered (‘X’ would
Consistency check be for fail).
 A consistency check
compares data in one Example
field with data in another  When entering the gender of ‘M’ or ‘F’, a
field that already exists consistency check will prevent ‘F’ from being
within a record, to see entered if the title is ‘Mr’ and will prevent ‘M’ from
whether both are being entered if the title is ‘Mrs’ or ‘Miss’.
consistent with each  When entering data about dispatching products,
other. it would not be possible to mark an item as being
dispatched until after it has been packaged.
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Check digit Original identification number = 20392

 A check digit is a number (or letter) Algorithm is performed on 20392
Check digit = 4
that is added to the end of an
Data including check digit = 203924
identification number being input. It
Valid Example
is a form of redundancy check
Identification number including check digit is entered
because the check digit is into the computer: 203924
redundant not needed for the Algorithm is performed on 203924
identification number, but just used Result of algorithm = 4
for validation. Result of algorithm (4) is compared with
 When the identification number is check digit that was entered (4).
They match.
first created, an algorithm (a series Data is valid.
of calculations) is performed on it
Invalid Example
to generate a check digit. When Identification number including check digit is entered
the identification number is input, into the computer: 205924
the same algorithm is performed Algorithm is performed on 205924
Result of algorithm = 7
on it. The result of the algorithm
should match the check digit. If it Result of Algorithm (7) is compared
with check digit that was entered (4).
matches, then the data is valid. If it
Does not match.
does not match then the data is Data is invalid
invalid. Figure 1.22 - Valid and invalid check digit calculations.
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Check digit Example

 There are a variety
 The Unique Product Code
of calculations that (UPC) check digit is used
can be performed with 13 digit barcodes. It is
to determine what the last digit shown on a
the check digit barcode. The algorithm for
should be. calculating the check digit Figure 1.23 - Unique
 The important thing is: Product Code check digit.
is that the same 1. Add all the digits in even
calculation used to numbered positions together.
create the check 2. Multiply the result (1) above by 3.
digit in the first 3. Add all the digits in odd numbered positions
place should be together.
used to check the 4. Add results (2) and (3) together.
check digit when 5. Divide the result (4) above by 10.
the identification 6. Calculate the remainder (modulo 10) of result
number is input. (5) above.
7. Subtract (6) above from 10.
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Example
Valid example
 In this example, the International Standard Book
Number (ISBN) is 978095734041-1 where the last
1 is the check digit. To calculate the check digit, the
following algorithm is performed on the ISBN
(excluding check digit): Figure 1.23 - Unique
1. Add all the digits in even numbered positions Product Code check digit.
together (978095734041) : 7 + 0 + 5 + 3 + 0+ 1 = 16.
2. Multiply result (1) above by 3 : 16 x 3 = 48.
3. Add all the digits in odd numbered positions together (978095734041) :
9 + 8 + 9 + 7 + 4 + 4 = 41.
4. Add results (2) and (3) together: 48 + 41 = 89.
5. Divide the result (4) above by 10 : 89 ÷ 10 = 8.9.
6. Calculate the remainder (modulo 10) of result (5) above: 89 MOD 10 =
9.
7. Subtract (6) above from 10 : 10-9 = 1.
8. The result of the algorithm is 1.
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Example
Invalid example
 In this example, the ISBN has been entered
incorrectly as two numbers have been transposed
(7 and 3) accidentally: 978095374041-1.
1. Add all the digits in even numbered positions
together(978095374041) :7+0+5+7+0+1 = 20. Figure 1.23 - Unique
2. Multiply result (1) above by 3 : 20 x 3 = 60. Product Code check digit.
3. Add all the digits in odd numbered positions together (978095374041) :
9 + 8 + 9 + 3 + 4 + 4 = 37.
4. Add results (2) and (3) together: 60 + 37 = 97.
5. Divide the result (4) above by 10 : 97 ÷ 10 = 9.7.
6. Calculate the remainder (modulo 10) of result (5) above: 97 MOD 10 =
7.
7. Subtract (6) above from 10 : 10-7 = 3.
 The result of the algorithm is 3. The result 3 is compared with the check
digit of 1 that was entered. They do not match. The ISBN entered is invalid.
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Task Discussion Point !

 The usual algorithm for UPCs is to multiply
Use the website
the odd digits by 3 rather than the even
www.upcdatabase.com/chec
kdigit.asp digits. It is only for 13 character barcodes
to generate check digits for that the even digits are multiplied by 3.
 Find out how to calculate a check digit for
product codes.
10 digit barcodes.
Verification
 Verification is the process of checking that the data entered into the computer
system matches the original source.
Visual checking
 A method of verification can be for the user to visually check that the data
entered matches the original source. This can be done by reading the data
displayed on screen and comparing it with the original data. If the data matches,
then it has passed the verification process. If it does not match, then it has failed
the verification process and needs to be re-entered.
 Visual checking does not ensure that the data entered is correct. If the original
data is wrong, then the verification process may still pass. E.g., if the intended
data is ABCD but ABC is on the source document, then ABC will be entered into
the computer and verified, but it should have been ABCD in the first place.
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Double data entry Example

 Another method of verification is to  When changing a
input data into the computer system password, most systems
twice. The two items of data are will ask the user to enter
the new password twice.
compared by the computer system
This is because it is critical
and if they match, then they are that the password is
verified. If there are any differences, entered correctly in order
then one of the inputs must have that the user can gain
been incorrect. access to the system in the
 It is still possible to pass double entry future.
 If the new passwords
verification and for the data to be
match, then the password
incorrect. If the data is entered will be changed. If the new
incorrectly twice, then the two values passwords don’t match,
may match. E.g., if the CAPS key is then one of the passwords
left on by mistake then both entries must have been entered
would match. incorrectly.
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The need for both validation Example

and verification  The validation rule is that a
 As you will have seen in the person’s gender must be a
two sections above, it is single letter. N is entered.
This passes the validation
possible to enter valid data
check but is clearly incorrect.
that is still incorrect. It is also
When verified using double
possible to verify incorrect entry, the user enters N first
data. followed by M the second
 By using both validation and time. The verification process
verification, the chances of has identified the error.
entering incorrect data are  However, it is still possible
reduced. If data that is that the user could enter N
incorrect passes a validation twice and both the validation
and verification processes
check, then the verification
would fail.
check is likely to spot the
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Proof reading Task

 Proof reading is the process of checking
information. For example, when this book
Check the
was written it was checked for spelling information below
errors, grammar errors, formatting and by proofreading it.
accuracy. Proof reading can take place for
a document or when data is input. I were walking
 When proof reading a document, it is best along the road
to have a proof reader who is different
from the original author of the document,
yesterday wen I
as they will be able to check the work spotted a dog
objectively and identify errors. without a lead I
 However, it is also possible for the original
author to proof read their own document, called the dog but it
but they may not notice some of their own did not respond,
errors. When data is input, it is usually
proof read by the person inputting the
the dog ran away;
data.
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Questions

15. Describe the purpose of

verification.
16. Identify three methods of
validation.
17. Explain using examples why
validation and verification do
not ensure data is correct.
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Answers
15. To ensure that data that is input matches the source
data.
16. Presence, range, type, length, format, check digit,
lookup.
17. Data can match the rules but still be incorrect (e.g.
date of birth of 29/1/13 matches the rule of a data type
but it may be that the date should have been 29/1/03)
Data can be checked against the source, but the source
may be incorrect (e.g. the name ‘Siobhan’ is written on the
original source and is visually checked to have been
entered as ‘Siohan’,but the actual spelling should have
been ‘Siobhan’.
1.06 – Summary
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 Information has context and meaning so a person knows what it means. The
quality of information can be affected by the accuracy, relevance, age, level of
detail and completeness of the information. Proofreading is the process of
checking information.
 Data are raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images without meaning.
Knowledge allows data to be interpreted and is based on rules and facts.
Static data does not normally change. Dynamic data updates as a result of the
source data changing. Data collected from a direct data source (primary
source) must be used for the same purpose for which it was collected. Data
collected from an indirect source (secondary source) already existed for
another purpose.
 Coding is the process of representing data by assigning a code to it for
classification or identification. Encoding is the process of storing data in a
specific format. Encryption is when data is scrambled so that it cannot be
understood.
 Validation ensures that data is sensible and allowed. Validation checks include
a presence check, range check, type check, length check, format check and
check digit. Verification is the process of checking data has been transferred
correctly. Verification can be done visually or by double data entry.
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1. Give an example of data. [1]

2. Describe the term knowledge. [1] ?
A news and sports website includes both static and dynamic
data.
3. a Compare static and dynamic data. [4]
b Identify and describe two factors that affect the quality of
information on the website. [4]
c Give an example of coded data related to the news and
sports website. [1]
The website streams news and sports videos.
d Explain why the video is compressed when it is encoded. [2]
e Identify three factors that will affect the size of a video file. [1]
f Identify and describe two factors that affect the file size of
images on the website. [4]
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Users can pay for premium services on the website using their
credit card.
4. a Explain why the website uses https at the beginning of the
website address instead of http. [4] ?
b Describe symmetric encryption. [1]
The journalists working for the website encrypt their emails.
c Describe how asymmetric encryption is used with emails. [2]
When the users subscribe to premium features, they have to
choose a password.
d Describe how verification can be used when entering the
password. [1]
There is a form on the website that can be used to submit news
stories. When data is entered onto the form, it is validated.
5. a Describe the purpose of validation. [1]
b Using an example related to submitting a news story, identify
and describe one method of validation. [3]