Discrete Mathematics

Trees

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 Outline of Today’s Lecture

 Universal Address System.

 Eccentricity.
 Prefix codes.
 Huffman Coding.

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 Universal Address System

 In ordered rooted trees, vertices may be

labeled according to the following
scheme:
 choose a root node and label it 0
 each of root’s k children are labeled, left to
right, as 1, 2, … , k
 for each vertex v at level n with label A, label
its kv children left to right as A.1, A.2, … A.k

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Universal Address System of
an Ordered Rooted Tree

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Address This Tree

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Solution

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 Think Carefully

 Suppose that the address of the vertex v in the ordered

rooted tree T is 3.4.5.2.4.
 At what level is v?
 5
 b) What is the address of the parent of v?
 3.4.5.2
 c) What is the least number of siblings v can have?
 2 including v

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 Eccentricity

 The eccentricity of a vertex in an

unrooted tree is the length of the longest
simple path beginning at this vertex.
 A vertex is called a center if no vertex in
the tree has smaller eccentricity than
this vertex.

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 Center = c

Finding Eccentricity

Ecc(a) = 4
Ecc(b) = 5
Ecc(c) = 3
Ecc(d) = 4
Ecc(e) = 4
Ecc(f) = 5
Ecc(g) = 5
Ecc(h) = 5
Ecc(i) = 5
Ecc(j) = 6
Ecc(k) = 6
Ecc(l) = 6 9
 Problem 1
 Consider the problem of using bit strings to encode the
letters of the English alphabet (where no distinction is
made between lowercase and uppercase letters).
 We can represent each letter with a bit string of length 5.
 The total number of bits used to encode data is five
times the number of characters in the text when each
character is encoded with five bits.
 Is it possible to find a coding scheme of these letters
such that, when data are coded, fewer bits are used? We
can save memory and reduce transmission time if this
can be done.

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 Problem 2

 Consider using bit strings of different lengths to

encode letters.
 Letters that occur more frequently should be
encoded using short bit strings, and longer bit
strings should be used to encode rarely occurring
letters.
 If e were encoded with 0, a with 1, and t with 01,
then the bit string 0101 could correspond to
 eat, (0 1 01)
 tea, (01 0 1)
 eaea, (0 1 0 1)
 or tt. (01 01) 11
 Prefix Code – Solution to
Problems

 No code is the prefix of any other code.

 A prefix code can be represented using a binary
tree,
 Where leaves represent the characters in string.
 The edges of the tree are labeled so that an edge leading
to a left child is assigned a 0 and an edge leading to a
right child is assigned a 1.
 The bit string used to encode a character is the
sequence of labels of the edges in the unique path
from the root to the leaf that has this character as
its label.
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A Binary Tree with Prefix Code

e=0
a = 10
t = 110
n = 1110
s = 1111

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Decode 11111011100

1111 = s
Now string becomes = 1011100
10 = a
Now string becomes = 11100
1110 = n
0 =e

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Construct the BT for Prefix
Codes

A:00, B:010, C:011, D:10, E:11

0 1

0 1 0 1
A D E
0 1
B C
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 Huffman Coding

 David A. Huffman (1951)

 Huffman coding uses frequencies of symbols in a string to build a variable rate prefix
code
 Each symbol is mapped to a binary string
 More frequent symbols have shorter codes
 No code is a prefix of another
 Example:
0 1

A 0 A
0 1
B 100
0 D
C 101 1
D 11 B C

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Construction of Huffman Trees

P(A)= 0.4, P(B)= 0.1, P(C)= 0.3, P(D)= 0.1, P(E)= 0.1

0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4

E D B C A

0.2 0.1 0.3 0.4

B C A

D E

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Construction of Huffman Trees
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
B C A
0 1

D E

0.3 0.3 0.4

C A
0 1

B
0 1

D E

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 Construction of Huffman Trees

0.3 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.4

C A A
0 1 0 1

B C
0 1 0 1

D E B
0 1

D E

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Construction of Huffman Trees
1.0
0.4 0.6
A
0 1
0 1

C A
0 1
0 1

B C
0 1 0 1

D E B
0 1

D E
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Construction of Huffman Trees

0 1
A=0
A B = 100
0 1
C = 11
C D = 1010
0 1
E = 1011
B
0 1

D E

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Another Example

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 Building a Tree
Scan the original text

 Consider the following short text:

 Eerie eyes seen near lake.

 Count up the occurrences of all characters in

the text

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 Building a Tree
Scan the original text

Eerie eyes seen near lake.

 What characters are present?

E e r i space ysnarlk.

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 Building a Tree
Scan the original text
Eerie eyes seen near lake.
 What is the frequency of each character in the text?

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 Building a Tree
Prioritize characters

 Create binary tree nodes with character

and frequency of each character
 Place nodes in a priority

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 Building a Tree
 After inserting all nodes

E i y l k . r s n a sp e
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

 Null Pointers are not shown

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 Building a Tree

y l k . r s n a sp e
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

E i

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 Building a Tree

y l k . r s n a sp e
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
E i

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 Building a Tree

k . r s n a sp e
1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
E i

y l

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 Building a Tree

2
k . r s n a 2 sp e
1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
y l
E i

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 Building a Tree

r s n a 2 2 sp e
2 2 2 2 4 8
y l
E i

k .

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 Building a Tree

r s n a 2 2 sp e
2
2 2 2 2 4 8
E i y l k .

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 Building a Tree

n a 2 sp e
2 2
2 2 4 8
E i y l k .

r s

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 Building a Tree

n a 2 sp e
2 4
2
2 2 4 8

E i y l k . r s

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 Building a Tree

2 4 e
2 2 sp
8
4
y l k . r s
E i

n a

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 Building a Tree

2 4 4 e
2 2 sp
8
4
y l k . r s n a
E i

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 Building a Tree

4 4 e
2 sp
8
4
k . r s n a

2 2

E i y l

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 Building a Tree

4 4 4
2 sp e
4 2 2 8
k . r s n a

E i y l

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 Building a Tree

4 4 4
e
2 2 8
r s n a

E i y l

2 sp

k .

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 Building a Tree

4 4 4 6 e
2 sp 8
r s n a 2 2
k .
E i y l

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 Building a Tree

4 6 e
2 2 2 8
sp

E i y l k .
8

4 4

r s n a

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 Building a Tree

4 6 e 8
2 2 2 8
sp
4 4
E i y l k .
r s n a

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 Building a Tree

8
e
8
4 4
10
r s n a
4
6
2 2
2 sp
E i y l k .

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 Building a Tree

8 10
e
8 4
4 4
6
2 2 2
r s n a sp
E i y l k .

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 Building a Tree

10
16
4
6
2 2 e 8
2 sp
E i y l k . 4 4

r s n a

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 Building a Tree

10 16

4
6
e 8
2 2
2 sp
4 4
E i y l k .

r s n a

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 Building a Tree

26

16
10

4 e 8
6
2 2 2 sp 4 4

E i y l k .
r s n a

Frequency of root node should equal number of

characters in text.
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 Prefix Codes Generated
Char Code
E 0000
i 0001
y 0010 26
l 0011
16
k 0100 10
. 0101
4
space 011 6
e 8
e 10 2 2 2 4
sp 4
r 1100
s 1101 E i y l k .
r s n a
n 1110
a 1111
 Encoding the File
 Rescan text and encode file
using new code words Char Code
E 0000
Eerie eyes seen near lake. i 0001
y 0010
l 0011
k 0100
0000101100000110011100010 . 0101
1011011010011111010111111 space 011
e 10
00011001111110100100101 r 1100
s 1101
n 1110
a 1111
 Why is there no need
for a separator
character?
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 References

 Discrete Mathematics’ by Rosen, 7th

Edition
 Section 11.2

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