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Encoding and Transfer of Information

Encoding information involves transforming sensory inputs into representations that can be stored in memory. Information can be encoded acoustically, semantically, or visually. Short-term memory relies primarily on acoustic encoding while long-term memory encoding can also be semantic or visual. Memories are consolidated and transferred from short-term to long-term memory through rehearsal, sleep, and the formation of connections between new and existing knowledge. Organization and mnemonic devices aid long-term storage and retrieval of memories.

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235 views22 pages

Encoding and Transfer of Information

Encoding information involves transforming sensory inputs into representations that can be stored in memory. Information can be encoded acoustically, semantically, or visually. Short-term memory relies primarily on acoustic encoding while long-term memory encoding can also be semantic or visual. Memories are consolidated and transferred from short-term to long-term memory through rehearsal, sleep, and the formation of connections between new and existing knowledge. Organization and mnemonic devices aid long-term storage and retrieval of memories.

Uploaded by

Yanna Lozano
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ENCODING AND

TRANSFER OF
INFORMATION
HALLIG, RALPH EMPREDO
Presenter
FORMS OF ENCODING

01 02
SHORT-TERM STORAGE LONG-TERM STORAGE

TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM


SHORT-TERM MEMORY TO LONG-TERM
MEMORY

03 04 ORGANIZATION OF
REHEARSAL
INFORMATION
STORAGE
- refers to how you store (keep)
encoded information in
memory

ENCODING
- refers to how you transform a physical,
sensory input into a representation than
can be placed into memory
SHORT-TERM
STORAGE
Conrad (1964) Baddeley (1966)

-Participants were visually presented with - he argued that short-term memory relies
several series of six letters at the rate of 0.75 primarily on an acoustic rather than a semantic
seconds per letter code
- B,C,F,M,N,P,S,T,V and X - he gave his participants lists of words to read
- errors tend to be based on acoustic and compared recall performance
confusability Acoustically Acoustically distinct
-encode visually presented letters by how confusable words: words:
they sound, not by how they look.
- Acoustic code over visual code map, cab, mad, man cow, pit, day, rig, bun
cap
Thus, initial encoding is
primarily acoustic in nature,
but other forms of encoding
(visual code or semantic code)
may be used under some
circumstances .
LONG-TERM
STORAGE
Grossman & Eagle (1970)

- participants learned a list of 41 words


- given a recognition test after five minutes of learning
- Nine distracters were semantically related to words on the list
and nine others are not
- false alarms for each type: participants recognized an
average of 1.83 of the synonyms (distracters) and 1.05 of
unrelated words (distracters.
- the result indicated a greater likelihood of semantic confusion.
Bousfield
Bousfield(1953)
(1953)

- participants learned a list of 60 words that included


15 animals, 15 professions, 15 vegetables, and 15
names of people
- the words were presented in random order
- after participants heard the words, they were asked
to use free recall to reproduce the list in any order
they wished
- participants were remembering words by clustering
them into categories
Encoding information in long-term
memory is not exclusively Frost, 1972
semantic. There are also evidence
for visual encoding.

- participants in a study received 16 drawings


of objects, including four items of clothing,
four animals, four vehicles and four items of
furniture

- the drawings differed in visual orientation :


four were angled to the left, four angled to
the right, four horizontal and four vertical.
Items were presented in random order.

- Research has shown people are able to


store thousands of images (Brady et al.,
2008)
Functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) studies have found that
the brain areas that are involved in
encoding can be, but to not necessarily
have to be, involved in retrieval.

(Nelson & Rothbart, 1972)


- acoustic information can be encoded
in long-term memory
Mnemonic
Devices
CATEGORICAL CLUSTERING
(hierarchy technique) - organize
ACROSTIC - form a ACRONYM (first letter
a list of items into a set of
sentence rather than a technique) - devise a word or
categories
single word to help you expression in which each of
remember the new words. its letters stands for a certain
other word or concept.

PEGWORD SYSTEM-
associate each word with a
word on a previously INTERACTIVE IMAGES-
memorized list and form an create interactive images that
interactive image between the link the isolated words in a
two words. list.

KEYWORD SYSTEM - form an METHOD OF LOCI- visualize


interactive image that links the walking around an area with
sound and meaning of a distinctive landmarks you know well,
foreign word with the sound and link the various landmarks to
and meaning of a familiar specific items to be remembered.
word.
TRANSFER OF INFORMATION from SHORT-TERM MEMORY
to LONG-TERM MEMORY

Two key problems: interference


and decay  Declarative memory (facts and
knowledge)
Entrance into long-term
declarative memory may  Nondeclarative memory
occur through a variety of (procedural memories)
processes.

1. deliberately attending to
information to comprehend it

2. making connections or
Stress generally impairs the memory-
associations between the
functioning. But, stress also can
new information and what
enhance the consolidation of memory
we already know and
make connections by integrating the through the release of hormones (Park
understand
new data into our schemas of stored et al., 2008; Roozendaal, 2002, 2003).
information or consolidation
METAMEMORY
- involve reflecting on our own memory processes to improve our
memory,
- important when we are transferring new information to long-term
memory by rehearsing it
- one component of metacognition, our ability to think about and
control our own processes of though and ways of enhancing our
thinking
- metacognition is thinking about how we think
REHEARSAL
-repeated recitation of an item

elaborative rehearsal - "elaborate" makes the items either


more meaningfully integrated

maintenance rehearsal - "simply repeats the items to be


remembered" maintains information in short-term memory
without transferring the information to long term-memory
SPACING EFFECT
- coined by Hermann Ebbinghaus

- distributed practice - learning sessions are spaced over time

- massed practice - learning sessions are crammed together

- the spacing effect is linked to the processes by which memories


are consolidated in long-term memory (Glenberg, 1977, 1979;
Leicht & Overton, 1987)
SLEEP AND MEMORY CONSOLIDATION
- REM sleep is the sleep stage characterized by dreaming and increased in brainwave
activity ( Karni et al., 1994)

- Other research show better learning with increases in the proportion of REM-stage sleep
after exposure to learning situations ( Ellenbogen, Payne, & Stickgold, 2006; Smith, 1996)

-research suggest that memory processes in the hippocampus are influenced by the
production and integration of new cells into the neuronal network.

- a good night's sleep, which includes plenty of REM-stage sleep, aids in memory
consolidation

- REM sleep may help us not only to remember but also to forget certain things by
weakening memories of low value (Oudiette et al., 2013)
NEUROSCIENCE AND MEMORY
CONSOLIDATION

- the hippocampus acts as a rapid learning system (McClelland, McNaughton, & O'Reilly,
1995)

- benefits of distributed practice seem to occur because of relatively rapid learning system
in the hippocampus that becomes activated during sleep

- the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus is an important brain region for memory formation,
and new cells are generated there continuously- thousands of neurons each day (Cameron &
McKay, 2001)

- Reconsolidation makes memories less likely to undergo either interference or decay


ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION

 Stored memories are organized


 Free recall and serial recall

 Mnemonic devices are especially helpful in


memorizing lists or words because it add meaning to
otherwise or arbitrary lists of items (Best, 2003)
 The relative effectiveness of the methods for encoding is
influenced by the kind of task (free recall versus serial
recall) required at the time of retrieval (Roediger, 1980)
NEUROSCIENCE: HOW ARE MEMORIES STORED?

1. Specific sensory properties of a given experience appear to be


organized across various areas of the cerebral cortex (Squire, 1986)

- the cerebral cortex appears to play an important role in memory in


terms of the long-term storage of information (Zola & Squire, 2000;
Zola-Morgan & Squire, 1990)

2. Hippocampus also seems to play a key role in the encoding of


declarative information ( Manns & Eichenbaum, 2006;
Thompson, 2000)

- also play a key role in complex learning (Gupta et al., 2009;


McCormick & Thompson, 1984)

- also has a significant role in the recollection of information


(Gilboa et al., 2006)
3. Basal Ganglia seem to be the primary structures controlling procedural knowledge
( Shohamy & Salmon, 1988).

4. Amygdala often is associated with emotional events

- also appears to play an important role in memory consolidation, especially in cases


in which emotional experience is involved (Cahill & McGaugh 1996; Roozendaal,
Barsegyan, & Lee, 2008)

5. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and acetylcholine seem to enhance neural


transmission associated with memory. Norepinephrine also may do so.

-High concentrations of acetylcholine have been found in the hippocampus of normal


people (Squire, 1987), but low concentrations are found in people with Alzheimer's
disease.
- serotonin also plays a role in another form of memory dysfunction,
Korsakoff syndrome (damage in the diencephalon).
- severe and prolonged abuse of alcohol can lead to devastating form of
anterograde amnesia

- Alcohol consumption has been shown to disrupt the activity of serotonin. It


thereby impairs the formation of memories (Weingartner et al., 1983)

6. Other physiological factors also affect memory function. Some of the


naturally occurring hormones stimulate increased availability of glucose in
the brain, which enhances memory function.

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