CS589-04 Digital Image Processing

Lecture 1
Introduction & Fundamentals

Spring 2008
 Introduction to the course
► http://www.cs.nmt.edu/~ip

► Office Hours:
Wednesday 9-11 AM, Cramer 231A
or appointment by email @
[email protected] or [email protected]

► Textbooks
Weeks 1 & 2 2
 Introduction to the course
► Grading
 Article Reading and Presentation: 15%
 Homework: 20%
 Exam: 15%
 Project: 50%
 Total: 100%
 Extra Credits: 50%. If the method and experimental
results of your project achieve the state of the art, you
will earn the extra 50% credits.

Weeks 1 & 2 3
 Introduction to the course
► Article Reading and Project
 Medical image analysis (MRI/PET/CT/X-ray tumor
detection/classification)
 Face, fingerprint, and other object recognition
 Image and/or video compression
 Image segmentation and/or denoising
 Digital image/video watermarking/steganography and
detection
 Whatever you’re interested …

Weeks 1 & 2 4
 Introduction to the course
► Evaluation of article reading and project
 Report
 Article reading
— Submit a survey of the articles you read and the list of the
articles
 Project
— Submit an article including introduction, methods,
experiments, results, and conclusions
— Submit the project code, the readme document, and some
testing samples (images, videos, etc.) for validation
 Presentation
Weeks 1 & 2 5
 Journals & Conferences
in Image Processing
► Journals:
— IEEE T IMAGE PROCESSING
— IEEE T MEDICAL IMAGING
— INTL J COMP. VISION
— IEEE T PATTERN ANALYSIS MACHINE INTELLIGENCE
— PATTERN RECOGNITION
— COMP. VISION AND IMAGE UNDERSTANDING
— IMAGE AND VISION COMPUTING
……
► Conferences:
— CVPR: Comp. Vision and Pattern Recognition
— ICCV: Intl Conf on Computer Vision
— ACM Multimedia
— ICIP
— SPIE
— ECCV: European Conf on Computer Vision
— CAIP: Intl Conf on Comp. Analysis of Images and Patterns
……

Weeks 1 & 2 6
 Introduction
► What is Digital Image Processing?

Digital Image
— a two-dimensional function f ( x, y )
x and y are spatial coordinates
The amplitude of f is called intensity or gray level at the point (x, y)

Digital Image Processing

— process digital images by means of computer, it covers low-, mid-, and high-level
processes
low-level: inputs and outputs are images
mid-level: outputs are attributes extracted from input images
high-level: an ensemble of recognition of individual objects

Pixel
— the elements of a digital image

Weeks 1 & 2 7
Origins of Digital Image Processing

Sent by submarine cable

between London and New
York, the transportation
time was reduced to less
than three hours from
more than a week
Weeks 1 & 2 8
Origins of Digital Image Processing

Weeks 1 & 2 9
 Sources for Images
► Electromagnetic (EM) energy spectrum
► Acoustic
► Ultrasonic
► Electronic
► Synthetic images produced by computer

Weeks 1 & 2 10
 Electromagnetic (EM) energy spectrum

Major uses
Gamma-ray imaging: nuclear medicine and astronomical observations
X-rays: medical diagnostics, industry, and astronomy, etc.
Ultraviolet: lithography, industrial inspection, microscopy, lasers, biological imaging,
and astronomical observations
Visible and infrared bands: light microscopy, astronomy, remote sensing, industry,
and law enforcement
Microwave band: radar
Radio band: medicine (such as MRI) and astronomy

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 Examples: Gama-Ray Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 12
 Examples: X-Ray Imaging

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 Examples: Ultraviolet Imaging

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 Examples: Light Microscopy Imaging

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 Examples: Visual and Infrared Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 16
 Examples: Visual and Infrared Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 17
 Examples: Infrared Satellite Imaging

2003
USA 1993
Weeks 1 & 2 18
 Examples: Infrared Satellite Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 19
 Examples: Automated Visual Inspection

Weeks 1 & 2 20
 Examples: Automated Visual Inspection

Results of
automated
reading of the
plate content by
the system

The area in
which the
imaging system
detected the
plate

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 Example of Radar Image

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 Examples: MRI (Radio Band)

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 Examples: Ultrasound Imaging

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 Fundamental Steps in DIP
Extracting image
components

Improving the
appearance Partition an image into
its constituent parts or
objects

Result is more
suitable than Represent image for
the original computer processing

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 Light and EM Spectrum

c   E  h , h : Planck's constant.
Weeks 1 & 2 26
 Light and EM Spectrum

► The colors that humans perceive in an object are

determined by the nature of the light reflected
from the object.

e.g. green objects reflect light with wavelengths primarily

in the 500 to 570 nm range while absorbing most of the
energy at other wavelength

Weeks 1 & 2 27
 Light and EM Spectrum
► Monochromatic light: void of color
Intensity is the only attribute, from black to white
Monochromatic images are referred to as gray-scale
images

► Chromatic light bands: 0.43 to 0.79 um

The quality of a chromatic light source:
Radiance: total amount of energy
Luminance (lm): the amount of energy an observer perceives
from a light source
Brightness: a subjective descriptor of light perception that is
impossible to measure. It embodies the achromatic notion of intensity
and one of the key factors in describing color sensation.

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 Image Acquisition

Transform
illumination
energy into
digital images

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 Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor

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 Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

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 Image Acquisition Process

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 A Simple Image Formation Model

f ( x, y )  i ( x, y )r ( x, y )

f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y )

i ( x, y ) : illumination at the point (x, y)
(the amount of source illumination incident on the scene)
r ( x, y ) : reflectance/transmissivity at the point (x, y )
(the amount of illumination reflected/transmitted by the object)
where 0 < i( x, y ) <  and 0 < r ( x, y) < 1

Weeks 1 & 2 33
 Some Typical Ranges of illumination

► Illumination
Lumen — A unit of light flow or luminous flux
Lumen per square meter (lm/m2) — The metric unit of measure
for illuminance of a surface

 On a clear day, the sun may produce in excess of 90,000 lm/m 2 of

illumination on the surface of the Earth

 On a cloudy day, the sun may produce less than 10,000 lm/m2 of
illumination on the surface of the Earth

 On a clear evening, the moon yields about 0.1 lm/m2 of illumination

 The typical illumination level in a commercial office is about 1000 lm/m 2

Weeks 1 & 2 34
 Some Typical Ranges of Reflectance

► Reflectance

 0.01 for black velvet

 0.65 for stainless steel

 0.80 for flat-white wall paint

 0.90 for silver-plated metal

 0.93 for snow

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 Image Sampling and Quantization

Digitizing the
coordinate
values
Digitizing the
amplitude
values

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 Image Sampling and Quantization

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 Representing Digital Images

Weeks 1 & 2 38
 Representing Digital Images

► The representation of an M×N numerical

array as

 f (0, 0) f (0,1) ... f (0, N  1) 

 f (1, 0) f (1,1) ... f (1, N  1) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M  1, 0) f ( M  1,1) ... f ( M  1, N  1) 

Weeks 1 & 2 39
 Representing Digital Images

► The representation of an M×N numerical

array as

 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N 1 

 a a1,1 ... a1, N 1  
A  1,0

 ... ... ... ... 

 
 aM 1,0 aM 1,1 ... aM 1, N 1 

Weeks 1 & 2 40
 Representing Digital Images

► The representation of an M×N numerical

array in MATLAB

 f (1,1) f (1, 2) ... f (1, N ) 

 f (2,1) f (2, 2) ... f (2, N ) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M ,1) f ( M , 2) ... f (M , N )

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 Representing Digital Images

► Discrete intensity interval [0, L-1], L=2k

► The number b of bits required to store a M × N

digitized image

b=M×N×k

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 Representing Digital Images

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 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

► Spatial resolution
— A measure of the smallest discernible detail in an image
— stated with line pairs per unit distance, dots (pixels) per
unit distance, dots per inch (dpi)

► Intensity resolution
— The smallest discernible change in intensity level
— stated with 8 bits, 12 bits, 16 bits, etc.

Weeks 1 & 2 44
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 45
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

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 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 47
 Image Interpolation

► Interpolation — Process of using known data to

estimate unknown values
e.g., zooming, shrinking, rotating, and geometric correction

► Interpolation (sometimes called resampling) —

an imaging method to increase (or decrease) the number
of pixels in a digital image.
Some digital cameras use interpolation to produce a larger image than
the sensor captured or to create digital zoom

http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/key=interpolation

Weeks 1 & 2 48
 Image Interpolation:
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation

f1(x2,y2) = f(x1,y1)
f(round(x2), round(y2))
=f(x1,y1)

f1(x3,y3) =
f(round(x3), round(y3))
=f(x1,y1)

Weeks 1 & 2 49
 Image Interpolation:
Bilinear Interpolation

(x,y)

f 2 ( x, y )
 (1  a)(1  b) f (l , k )  a (1  b) f (l  1, k )
(1  a)b f (l , k  1)  a b f (l  1, k  1)
l  floor ( x), k  floor ( y ), a  x  l , b  y  k .
Weeks 1 & 2 50
 Image Interpolation:
Bicubic Interpolation
► The intensity value assigned to point (x,y) is obtained by
the following equation
3 3
f 3 ( x, y )   aij x y i j

i 0 j 0

► The sixteen coefficients are determined by using the

sixteen nearest neighbors.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicubic_interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighborhood

► Adjacency

► Connectivity

► Paths

► Regions and boundaries

Weeks 1 & 2 60
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).

 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).

 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)
Weeks 1 & 2 61
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).

 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p).

Weeks 1 & 2 62
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

m-adjacent if

(i) q is in the set N4(p), or

(ii) q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(p) has no pixels whose
values are from V.

Weeks 1 & 2 63
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Path
 A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel
q with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with
coordinates

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

 Here n is the length of the path.

 If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

 We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of adjacency
used.

Weeks 1 & 2 64
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Weeks 1 & 2 65
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent

Weeks 1 & 2 66
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent

Weeks 1 & 2 67
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1,1 1 1,2 1
1,3 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2,1 2 2,2 0
2,3 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 3,1 0 3,2 1
3,3 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent

The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3): The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
(ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)

Weeks 1 & 2 68
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Connected in S
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two pixels
p with coordinates (x0, y0) and q with coordinates (xn, yn)
are said to be connected in S if there exists a path

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where i, 0  i  n, ( xi , yi )  S

Weeks 1 & 2 69
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image

► For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p is

called a connected component of S.

► If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected

Set.

► We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

► Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a

connected set.
► Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.

Weeks 1 & 2 70
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Boundary (or border)

 The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that
have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
 If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the
set of pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.

► Foreground and background

 An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote

the union of all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement.
All the points in Ru is called foreground;
All the points in (Ru)c is called background.

Weeks 1 & 2 71
 Question 1

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

regions (of 1s) adjacent? (if 8-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
Region 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
Region 2
0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 72
 Question 2

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

parts (of 1s) adjacent? (if 4-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
Part 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
Part 2
0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 73
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the two
regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
Region 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
Region 2
0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 74
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the two
regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used)

1 1 1
foreground
1 0 1
0 1 0
background
0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 75
 Question 3

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels
if 8-adjacency is used, true or false?

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 76
 Question 4

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels
if 4-adjacency is used, true or false?

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 77
 Distance Measures

► Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t),

(u, v) respectively, the distance function D has
following properties:

a. D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]

b. D(p, q) = D(q, p)

c. D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)

Weeks 1 & 2 78
 Distance Measures

The following are the different Distance measures:

a. Euclidean Distance :
De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

b. City Block Distance:

D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t|

c. Chess Board Distance:

D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)

Weeks 1 & 2 79
 Question 5

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the chessboard distance between the
circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 80
 Question 6

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the city-block distance between the circled
two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 81
 Question 7

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the length of the m-path between the
circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 82
 Question 8

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the length of the m-path between the
circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 83
 Introduction to Mathematical Operations in
DIP
► Array vs. Matrix Operation

 a11 a12   b11 b12 

A  B
 a21 a22  b b 
 21 22 
Array
product
operator
 a11b11 a12b12  Array product
A .* B  
 a21b21 a22b22 
Matrix
product
operator
 a11b11  a12b21 a11b12  a12b22  Matrix product
A*B
 a21b11  a22b21 a21b12  a22b22 

Weeks 1 & 2 84
 Introduction to Mathematical Operations in
DIP
► Linear vs. Nonlinear Operation

H  f ( x , y )   g ( x, y )
H  ai f i ( x, y )  a j f j ( x, y ) 
Additivity
 H  ai fi ( x, y )  H  a j f j ( x, y ) 
 ai H  f i ( x, y )  a j H  f j ( x, y )  Homogeneity

 ai gi ( x, y )  a j g j ( x, y )
H is said to be a linear operator;
H is said to be a nonlinear operator if it does not meet the
above qualification.
Weeks 1 & 2 85
 Arithmetic Operations

► Arithmetic operations between images are array

operations. The four arithmetic operations are denoted
as

s(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y)

d(x,y) = f(x,y) – g(x,y)
p(x,y) = f(x,y) × g(x,y)
v(x,y) = f(x,y) ÷ g(x,y)

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 Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

Noiseless image: f(x,y)

Noise: n(x,y) (at every pair of coordinates (x,y), the noise is uncorrelated
and has zero average value)
Corrupted image: g(x,y)
g(x,y) = f(x,y) + n(x,y)

Reducing the noise by adding a set of noisy images, {g i(x,y)}

K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i

Weeks 1 & 2 87
 Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i

1 K 
E  g ( x, y )  E   g i ( x, y )  2
 g ( x,y )   2 K
 K i 1  1
 gi ( x , y )
K i 1
1 K 
 E    f ( x, y )  ni ( x, y )  
 K i 1  1 2
 2
  n( x, y )
1 K
 1 K
K

 ni ( x , y )
 f ( x, y )  E  ni ( x, y )  K i 1

K i 1 
 f ( x, y )
Weeks 1 & 2 88
 Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

► In astronomy, imaging under very low light levels

frequently causes sensor noise to render single images
virtually useless for analysis.

► In astronomical observations, similar sensors for noise

reduction by observing the same scene over long
periods of time. Image averaging is then used to
reduce the noise.

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Weeks 1 & 2 90
 An Example of Image Subtraction: Mask Mode Radiography

Mask h(x,y): an X-ray image of a region of a patient’s body

Live images f(x,y): X-ray images captured at TV rates after injection of

the contrast medium

Enhanced detail g(x,y)

g(x,y) = f(x,y) - h(x,y)

The procedure gives a movie showing how the contrast medium

propagates through the various arteries in the area being observed.

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Weeks 1 & 2 92
 An Example of Image Multiplication

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 Set and Logical Operations

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 Set and Logical Operations
► Let A be the elements of a gray-scale image
The elements of A are triplets of the form (x, y, z), where
x and y are spatial coordinates and z denotes the intensity
at the point (x, y).

A  {( x, y, z ) | z  f ( x, y )}
► The complement of A is denoted Ac
Ac  {( x, y, K  z ) | ( x, y, z )  A}
K  2k  1; k is the number of intensity bits used to represent z

Weeks 1 & 2 95
 Set and Logical Operations
► The union of two gray-scale images (sets) A and B is
defined as the set

A  B  {max(a, b) | a  A, b  B}
z

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 Set and Logical Operations

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 Set and Logical Operations

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 Spatial Operations

► Single-pixel operations
Alter the values of an image’s pixels based on the intensity.

s  T ( z)

e.g.,

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 Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

The value of this pixel is

determined by a specified
operation involving the pixels in
the input image with coordinates
in Sxy

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 Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

Weeks 1 & 2 101

 Geometric Spatial Transformations
► Geometric transformation (rubber-sheet transformation)
— A spatial transformation of coordinates

( x, y )  T {(v, w)}
— intensity interpolation that assigns intensity values to the spatially
transformed pixels.

► Affine transform
 t11 t12 0
 
x y 1   v w 1 t21 t22 0
t31 t32 1 
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Weeks 1 & 2 103
 Intensity Assignment

► Forward Mapping

( x, y )  T {(v, w)}
It’s possible that two or more pixels can be transformed to the same
location in the output image.

► Inverse Mapping
(v, w)  T 1{( x, y )}
The nearest input pixels to determine the intensity of the output
pixel value.
Inverse mappings are more efficient to implement than forward
mappings.
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 Example: Image Rotation and Intensity
Interpolation

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 Image Registration

► Input and output images are available but the

transformation function is unknown.
Goal: estimate the transformation function and use it to
register the two images.

► One of the principal approaches for image registration is

to use tie points (also called control points)
 The corresponding points are known precisely in the
input and output (reference) images.

Weeks 1 & 2 106

 Image Registration

► A simple model based on bilinear approximation:

 x  c1v  c2 w  c3vw  c4

 y  c5v  c6 w  c7 vw  c8

Where (v, w) and ( x, y ) are the coordinates of

tie points in the input and reference images.

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 Image Registration

Weeks 1 & 2 108

 Image Transform

► A particularly important class of 2-D linear transforms,

denoted T(u, v)
M 1 N 1
T (u , v )    f ( x, y )r ( x, y , u , v )
x 0 y 0

where f ( x, y ) is the input image,

r ( x, y, u , v) is the forward transformation ker nel ,
variables u and v are the transform variables,
u = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and v = 0, 1, ..., N-1.
Weeks 1 & 2 109
 Image Transform

► Given T(u, v), the original image f(x, y) can be recoverd

using the inverse tranformation of T(u, v).

M 1 N 1
f ( x, y )    T (u , v) s ( x, y, u , v )
u 0 v 0

where s ( x, y, u, v) is the inverse transformation ker nel ,

x = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and y = 0, 1, ..., N-1.

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 Image Transform

Weeks 1 & 2 111

Example: Image Denoising by Using DCT Transform

Weeks 1 & 2 112

 Forward Transform Kernel
M 1 N 1
T (u, v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y, u , v)
x 0 y 0

The kernel r ( x, y, u, v) is said to be SEPERABLE if

r ( x, y, u , v)  r1 ( x, u )r2 ( y, v)

In addition, the kernel is said to be SYMMETRIC if

r1 ( x, u ) is functionally equal to r2 ( y, v ), so that
r ( x, y, u , v)  r1 ( x, u )r1 ( y, u )
Weeks 1 & 2 113
 The Kernels for 2-D Fourier Transform

The forward kernel

 j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
r ( x, y , u , v )  e
Where j = 1

The inverse kernel

1 j 2 (ux / M  vy / N )
s ( x, y , u , v )  e
MN
Weeks 1 & 2 114
 2-D Fourier Transform

M 1 N 1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )e  j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )

x 0 y 0

M 1 N 1
1
f ( x, y ) 
MN
  T (u, v)e
u 0 v 0
j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )

Weeks 1 & 2 115

 Probabilistic Methods
Let zi , i  0, 1, 2, ..., L -1, denote the values of all possible intensities
in an M  N digital image. The probability, p( zk ), of intensity level
zk occurring in a given image is estimated as
nk
p ( zk )  ,
MN
where nk is the number of times that intensity zk occurs in the image.
L 1

 p( z ) 1
k 0
k

The mean (average) intensity is given by

L 1
m= z
k 0
k p( zk )
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 Probabilistic Methods

The variance of the intensities is given by

L 1
 2 =  ( z k  m) 2 p ( z k )
k 0

The n th moment of the intensity variable z is

L 1
un ( z ) = (z
k 0
k  m) p( zk )
n

Weeks 1 & 2 117

Example: Comparison of Standard Deviation
Values

  14.3   31.6   49.2

Weeks 1 & 2 118

 Homework
http://cramer.cs.nmt.edu/~ip/assignments.html

Weeks 1 & 2 119