Lecture PowerPoints

Chapter 23
Physics: Principles with
Applications, 7th edition
Giancoli

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 Chapter 23
Light: Geometric Optics

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 Contents of Chapter 23

• The Ray Model of Light

• Reflection; Image Formed by a Plane Mirror
• Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors
• Index of Refraction
• Refraction: Snell’s Law

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 Contents of Chapter 23

• Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

• Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing
• The Thin Lens Equation
• Combinations of Lenses
• Lensmaker’s Equation

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 23-1 The Ray Model of Light

Light very often travels in straight lines. We represent

light using rays, which are straight lines emanating from
an object. This is an idealization, but is very useful for
geometric optics.

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 23-2 Reflection; Image Formation
by a Plane Mirror

Law of reflection: the angle of reflection (that the ray

makes with the normal to a surface) equals the angle of
incidence.

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 23-2 Reflection; Image Formation
by a Plane Mirror

When light reflects from a rough surface, the law of

reflection still holds, but the angle of incidence varies.
This is called diffuse reflection.

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 23-2 Reflection; Image Formation
by a Plane Mirror

With diffuse reflection, your eye sees reflected light at

all angles. With specular reflection (from a mirror), your
eye must be in the correct position.

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 23-2 Reflection; Image Formation
by a Plane Mirror

What you see when you look into a plane (flat) mirror is
an image, which appears to be behind the mirror.

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 23-2 Reflection; Image Formation
by a Plane Mirror

This is called a virtual image, as the light does not go

through it. The distance of the image from the mirror is
equal to the distance of the object from the mirror.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

Spherical mirrors are shaped like sections of a sphere,

and may be reflective on either the inside (concave) or
outside (convex)

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

Rays coming from a faraway object are effectively

parallel.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

Parallel rays striking a spherical mirror do not all

converge at exactly the same place if the curvature of the
mirror is large; this is called spherical aberration.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

If the curvature is small, the focus is much more precise;

the focal point is where the rays converge.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

Using geometry, we find that the focal length is half the

radius of curvature:
(23-1)

Spherical aberration can be avoided by using a parabolic

reflector; these are more difficult and expensive to make,
and so are used only when necessary, such as in research
telescopes.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

We use ray diagrams to determine where an image will

be. For mirrors, we use three key rays, all of which begin
on the object:
1. A ray parallel to the axis; after reflection it passes
through the focal point
2. A ray through the focal point; after reflection it is
parallel to the axis
3. A ray perpendicular to the mirror; it reflects back on
itself

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

The intersection of these three rays gives the position of

the image of that point on the object. To get a full image,
we can do the same with other points (two points suffice
for many purposes).

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

Geometrically, we can derive an equation that relates the

object distance, image distance, and focal length of the
mirror:
(23-2)

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

We can also find the magnification (ratio of image height

to object height).
(23-3)

The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.

This object is between the center of curvature and the
focal point, and its image is larger, inverted, and real.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

If an object is inside the focal point, its image will be

upright, larger, and virtual.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

If an object is outside the center of curvature of a

concave mirror, its image will be inverted, smaller, and
real.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

For a convex mirror, the

image is always virtual,
upright, and smaller.

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 23-3 Formation of Images
by Spherical Mirrors

Problem Solving: Spherical Mirrors

1. Draw a ray diagram; the image is where the rays
intersect.
2. Apply the mirror and magnification equations.
3. Sign conventions: if the object, image, or focal point
is on the reflective side of the mirror, its distance is
positive, and negative otherwise. Magnification is
positive if image is upright, negative otherwise.
4. Check that your solution agrees with the ray diagram.
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 23-4 Index of Refraction

In general, light slows

somewhat when traveling
through a medium. The
index of refraction of the
medium is the ratio of the
speed of light in vacuum to
the speed of light in the
medium:

(23-4)

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 23-5 Refraction: Snell’s Law

Light changes direction when crossing a boundary from

one medium to another. This is called refraction, and the
angle the outgoing ray makes with the normal is called
the angle of refraction.

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 23-5 Refraction: Snell’s Law

Refraction is what makes objects half-submerged in

water look odd.

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 23-5 Refraction: Snell’s Law

The angle of refraction

depends on the indices of
refraction, and is given by
Snell’s law:

(23-5)

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 23-6 Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

If light passes into a medium with a smaller index of

refraction, the angle of refraction is larger. There is an
angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction will
be 90°; this is called the critical angle:

(23-6)

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 23-6 Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

If the angle of incidence is larger than this, no

transmission occurs. This is called total internal
reflection.

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 23-6 Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

Binoculars often use total internal reflection; this gives

true 100% reflection, which even the best mirror cannot
do.

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 23-6 Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics

Total internal reflection is also the principle behind fiber

optics. Light will be transmitted along the fiber even if it
is not straight. An image can be formed using multiple
small fibers.

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 23-7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Thin lenses are those whose thickness is small compared

to their radius of curvature. They may be either
converging (a) or diverging (b).

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 23-7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Parallel rays are brought to a focus by a converging lens

(one that is thicker in the center than it is at the edge).

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 23-7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

A diverging lens (thicker at the edge than in the center)

make parallel light diverge; the focal point is that point
where the diverging rays would converge if projected
back.

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 23-7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

The power of a lens is the inverse of its focal length.

(23-7)

Lens power is measured in diopters, D.

1 D = 1 m−1

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 23-7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

Ray tracing for thin lenses is similar to that for mirrors.

We have three key rays:
1. This ray comes in parallel to the axis and exits
through the focal point.
2. This ray comes in through the focal point and exits
parallel to the axis.
3. This ray goes through the center of the lens and is
undeflected.

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 23-7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

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 23-7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing

For a diverging lens, we can use the same three rays; the
image is upright and virtual.

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 23-8 The Thin Lens Equation

The thin lens equation is the same as the mirror

equation:

(23-8)

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 23-8 The Thin Lens Equation

The sign conventions are slightly different:

1. The focal length is positive for converging lenses and negative
for diverging.
2. The object distance is positive when the object is on the same
side as the light entering the lens (not an issue except in
compound systems); otherwise it is negative.
3. The image distance is positive if the image is on the opposite
side from the light entering the lens; otherwise it is negative.
4. The height of the image is positive if the image is upright and
negative otherwise.

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 23-8 The Thin Lens Equation

The magnification formula is also the same as that for a

mirror:
(23-9)

The power of a lens is positive if it is converging and

negative if it is diverging.

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 23-8 The Thin Lens Equation

Problem Solving: Thin Lenses

1. Draw a ray diagram. The image is located where the
key rays intersect.
2. Solve for unknowns.
3. Follow the sign conventions.
4. Check that your answers are consistent with the ray
diagram.

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 23-9 Combinations of Lenses

In lens combinations, the image formed by the first lens

becomes the object for the second lens (this is where
object distances may be negative).

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 23-10 Lensmaker’s Equation

This useful equation relates the radii of curvature of the

two lens surfaces, and the index of refraction, to the
focal length. This useful equation relates the radii of
curvature of the two lens surfaces, and the index of
refraction, to the focal length.

(23-10)

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 Summary of Chapter 23

• Light paths are called rays

• Index of refraction:
• Angle of reflection equals angle of incidence
• Plane mirror: image is virtual, upright, and the same
size as the object
• Spherical mirror can be concave or convex
• Focal length of the mirror:

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 Summary of Chapter 23

• Mirror equation:

• Magnification:

• Real image: light passes through it

• Virtual image: light does not pass through

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 Summary of Chapter 23

• Law of refraction (Snell’s law):

• Total internal reflection occurs when angle of

incidence is greater than critical angle:

• A converging lens focuses incoming parallel rays

to a point

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 Summary of Chapter 23

• A diverging lens spreads incoming rays so that they

appear to come from a point
• Power of a lens:

• Thin lens equation:

• Magnification:

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