Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions
Section 2.1
The Early History of Chemistry
Early History of Chemistry

 Greeks were the first to attempt to explain why chemical
changes occur.
 Alchemy dominated for 2000 years.
 Several elements discovered.
 Mineral acids prepared.
 Robert Boyle was the first “chemist”.
 Performed quantitative experiments.
 Developed first experimental definition of an element.
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Section 2.2
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Three Important Laws

 Law of conservation of mass (Lavoisier):
 Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
 Law of definite proportion (Proust):

 A given compound always contains exactly the same
proportion of elements by mass.

Section 2.2
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Three Important Laws (continued)

 Law of multiple proportions (Dalton):
 When two elements form a series of compounds, the
ratios of the masses of the second element that
combine with 1 gram of the first element can always
be reduced to small whole numbers.

Section 2.3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)

 Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms.

Section 2.3
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (continued)

 The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of
different elements are different in some fundamental
way or ways.

Section 2.3

 Chemical compounds are formed when atoms of
different elements combine with each other. A given
compound always has the same relative numbers and
types of atoms.

Section 2.3

 Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms
—changes in the way they are bound together.
 The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical
reaction.

Section 2.3
Gay-Lussac and Avogadro (1809—1811)

 Gay—Lussac
 Measured (under same conditions of T and P) the
volumes of gases that reacted with each other.
 Avogadro’s Hypothesis
 At the same T and P, equal volumes of different gases
contain the same number of particles.
 Volume of a gas is determined by the number, not the
size, of molecules.

Section 2.3
Representing Gay—Lussac’s Results

Section 2.3

Section 2.3

Section 2.3

Section 2.4
Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom
J. J. Thomson (1898—1903)
 Postulated the existence of negatively charged particles,
that we now call electrons, using cathode-ray tubes.
 Determined the charge-to-mass ratio of an electron.
 The atom must also contain positive particles that
balance exactly the negative charge carried by electrons.

Section 2.4
Cathode-Ray Tube

Section 2.4
Robert Millikan (1909)

 Performed experiments involving charged oil drops.
 Determined the magnitude of the charge on a single
electron.
 Calculated the mass of the electron
 (9.11 × 10-31 kg).

Section 2.4
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
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Section 2.4
Henri Becquerel (1896)
 Discovered radioactivity by observing the

spontaneous emission of radiation by uranium.
 Three types of radioactive emission exist:
 Gamma rays (ϒ) – high energy light
 Beta particles (β) – a high speed electron
 Alpha particles (α) – a particle with a 2+ charge

Section 2.4
Ernest Rutherford (1911)

 Explained the nuclear atom.
 The atom has a dense center of positive charge called
the nucleus.
 Electrons travel around the nucleus at a large distance
relative to the nucleus.

Section 2.5
The Modern View of Atomic Structure:
An Introduction
 The atom contains:

 Electrons – found outside the nucleus; negatively
charged.
 Protons – found in the nucleus; positive charge equal
in magnitude to the electron’s negative charge.
 Neutrons – found in the nucleus; no charge; virtually
same mass as a proton.

Section 2.5
An Introduction
 The nucleus is:

 Small compared with the overall size of the atom.
 Extremely dense; accounts for almost all of the
atom’s mass.

Section 2.5
An Introduction
Nuclear Atom Viewed in Cross Section
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Section 2.5
An Introduction
Isotopes
 Atoms with the same number of protons but different

numbers of neutrons.
 Show almost identical chemical properties; chemistry of
atom is due to its electrons.
 In nature most elements contain mixtures of isotopes.

Section 2.5
An Introduction
Two Isotopes of Sodium

Section 2.5
An Introduction
 Isotopes are identified by:

 Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons
 Mass Number (A) – number of protons plus number
of neutrons

Section 2.5
An Introduction
EXERCISE!
A certain isotope X contains 23 protons and 28 neutrons.

 What is the mass number of this isotope?
 Identify the element.
Mass Number = 51
Vanadium

Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Chemical Bonds
 Covalent Bonds
 Bonds form between atoms by sharing electrons.
 Resulting collection of atoms is called a molecule.

Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Covalent Bonding

Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Chemical Bonds
 Ionic Bonds
 Bonds form due to force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
 Ion – atom or group of atoms that has a net positive
or negative charge.
 Cation – positive ion; lost electron(s).
 Anion – negative ion; gained electron(s).

Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
Molecular vs Ionic Compounds

Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
EXERCISE!
A certain isotope X+ contains 54 electrons and 78

neutrons.
 What is the mass number of this isotope?
133

Section 2.6
Molecules and Ions
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which of the following statements regarding Dalton’s

atomic theory are still believed to be true?
I. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.

II. All atoms of a given element are identical.
III. A given compound always has the same relative
numbers and types of atoms.
IV. Atoms are indestructible.

Section 2.7
An Introduction to the Periodic Table
The Periodic Table

 Metals vs. Nonmetals
 Groups or Families – elements in the same vertical
columns; have similar chemical properties
 Periods – horizontal rows of elements

Section 2.7
The Periodic
Table
Section 2.7
Groups or Families
 Table of common charges formed when creating ionic
compounds.
Group or Family Charge
Alkali Metals (1A) 1+
Alkaline Earth Metals (2A) 2+
Halogens (7A) 1–
Noble Gases (8A) 0

Section 2.8
Naming Simple Compounds
Naming Compounds
 Binary Compounds
 Composed of two elements
 Ionic and covalent compounds included
 Binary Ionic Compounds
 Metal—nonmetal
 Binary Covalent Compounds
 Nonmetal—nonmetal

Section 2.8
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type I)

1. The cation is always named first and the anion second.
2. A monatomic cation takes its name from the name of
the parent element.
3. A monatomic anion is named by taking the root of the
element name and adding –ide.

Section 2.8
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type I)

 Examples:
KCl Potassium chloride
MgBr2 Magnesium bromide
CaO Calcium oxide

Section 2.8
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)

 Metals in these compounds form more than one type of
positive ion.
 Charge on the metal ion must be specified.
 Roman numeral indicates the charge of the metal
cation.
 Transition metal cations usually require a Roman
numeral.
 Elements that form only one cation do not need to be
identified by a roman numeral.
Section 2.8
Binary Ionic Compounds (Type II)

 Examples:
CuBr Copper(I) bromide
FeS Iron(II) sulfide
PbO2 Lead(IV) oxide

Section 2.8
Polyatomic Ions
 Must be memorized (see Table 2.5 on pg. 65 in text).
 Examples of compounds containing polyatomic ions:
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
Mg(NO3)2 Magnesium nitrate
(NH4)2SO4 Ammonium sulfate

Section 2.8
Formation of Ionic Compounds

Section 2.8
Binary Covalent Compounds (Type III)

 Formed between two nonmetals.
1. The first element in the formula is named first, using the
full element name.
2. The second element is named as if it were an anion.
3. Prefixes are used to denote the numbers of atoms
present.
4. The prefix mono- is never used for naming the first
element.

Section 2.8
Prefixes Used to Indicate

Number in Chemical
Names

Section 2.8
Binary Covalent Compounds (Type III)

 Examples:
CO2 Carbon dioxide
SF6 Sulfur hexafluoride
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetroxide

Section 2.8
Flowchart for Naming Binary Compounds

Section 2.8
Overall Strategy for Naming Chemical Compounds

Section 2.8
Acids
 Acids can be recognized by the hydrogen that appears
first in the formula—HCl.
 Molecule with one or more H+ ions attached to an
anion.

Section 2.8
Acids
 If the anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named
with the prefix hydro– and the suffix –ic.
 Examples:
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HCN Hydrocyanic acid
H2S Hydrosulfuric acid

Section 2.8
Acids
 If the anion does contain oxygen:
 The suffix –ic is added to the root name if the anion
name ends in –ate.
 Examples:
HNO3 Nitric acid
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
HC2H3O2 Acetic acid

Section 2.8
Acids
 If the anion does contain oxygen:
 The suffix –ous is added to the root name if the anion
name ends in –ite.
 Examples:
HNO2 Nitrous acid
H2SO3 Sulfurous acid
HClO2 Chlorous acid

Section 2.8
Flowchart for Naming Acids

Section 2.8
EXERCISE!
Which of the following compounds is named incorrectly?
a) KNO3 potassium nitrate

b) TiO2 titanium(II) oxide
c) Sn(OH)4 tin(IV) hydroxide
d) PBr5 phosphorus pentabromide
e) CaCrO4 calcium chromate

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What are the three fundamental chemical laws discussed?

What are the three fundamental chemical laws discussed?

What is Dalton's atomic theory?

What is Dalton's atomic theory?

Early History of Chemistry

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Three Important Laws

 Law of definite proportion (Proust):

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Three Important Laws (continued)

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (continued)

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (continued)

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (continued)

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Gay-Lussac and Avogadro (1809—1811)

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Representing Gay—Lussac’s Results

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Representing Gay—Lussac’s Results

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Representing Gay—Lussac’s Results

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Representing Gay—Lussac’s Results

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Robert Millikan (1909)

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Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

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Henri Becquerel (1896)

 Discovered radioactivity by observing the

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Ernest Rutherford (1911)

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 The atom contains:

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 The nucleus is:

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 Atoms with the same number of protons but different

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 Isotopes are identified by:

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A certain isotope X contains 23 protons and 28 neutrons.

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Molecular vs Ionic Compounds

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A certain isotope X+ contains 54 electrons and 78