Learning and Cognition in The Content Areas: © 2008 Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved
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afiqahLearning and Cognition in The Content Areas: © 2008 Mcgraw-Hill Higher Education. All Rights Reserved
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afiqahCHAPTER 11
Learning and Cognition in
the Content Areas
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning Goals
1. Distinguish between expert knowledge
and pedagogical content knowledge.
2. Explain how reading develops and some
useful approaches to teaching reading.
3. Describe how writing develops and some
useful approaches to teaching writing.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning Goals, cont’d
4. Characterize how mathematical thinking
develops and identify some issues
related to teaching mathematics.
5. Identify some challenges and strategies
related to teaching children how to think
scientifically.
6. Summarize how learning in social
studies is becoming more constructivist.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Expert and Pedagogical Content
Knowledge
Expert knowledge means an
excellent knowledge about the
content of a particular
discipline.
Pedagogical content
knowledge is knowledge about
how to effectively teach a
particular discipline.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas
Reading
A Developmental Social Constructivist
Model of Reading Approaches
Language Rule Cognitive
Systems Approaches
Approaches to
Reading
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Developmental Model of Reading
Stage 0 - Left to right progression, identification
of letters of the alphabet, how to write their
names
Stage 1 (grades 1–2) - Learn to sound out words
Stage 2 (grades 2–3) - Retrieve individual words
and develop mechanical skills
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Developmental Model of Reading
Stage 3 (grades 4–8) - Read to learn,
understand various perspectives
Stage 4 (high school) - Develop the ability to
understand material written from different
perspectives and discuss
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Language Rule Systems
Phonology Sound system of a language
Morphology Units of meaning involved in word
formation
Syntax Rules for combining words into
acceptable phrases/sentences
Semantics Meaning of words and sentences
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Teaching Reading
Reading is the ability to
understand written discourse.
Phonics Whole-
Approach Language
Approach
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Cognitive Approaches
Decoding and Metacognitive strategies:
Comprehending - Overview of text
- Seek and relate important
ideas
- Determine word meaning
- Monitor comprehension
- Understand relationships
- Recognize the necessity to
reread
- Adjust pace based on
difficulty of material
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cognitive Approaches
Constructing Reader uses background
Meaning knowledge and knowledge of
words to construct, not just to
decode.
Develop Expert The transactional strategy
Strategies instruction approach allows
students to learn strategies to
monitor reading and to
summarize information.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Social Constructivist Approaches
Meaning is “socially negotiated” (reader’s
contribution, context, and purpose).
Assumptions:
1. The social context plays an important role in
reading.
2. Knowledgeable readers in the culture assist
less knowledgeable
readers.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Social Constructivist Approaches
Reciprocal teaching, in which teachers
explain and model, gradually assuming a
less active role.
Book Clubs
School/Family/Community Connections
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Comparing Approaches to
Reading Instruction
Reciprocal group takes
turns with the teacher.
Explicit instruction
group listens and
completes paper-pencil
activities.
Modeling group
observes teacher’s use of
strategies.
Control group was given
no reading strategy
information.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas
Writing
Developmental Social Constructivist
Changes Approaches
Cognitive
Approaches
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Developmental Changes in
Writing
Age 2–3 Writing emerges out of scribbles.
Age 4 In the United States, children can usually
reproduce their name.
Age 5 Reproduce letters and copy short words.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Developmental Changes in
Writing
Early Elementary School: Distinguish letter
characteristics, continued reversal of letters
(b-d;p-q). Criticism of printing skills should be
minimized.
Middle and High School: Students develop
sophisticated methods of organizing ideas.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cognitive Approaches to
Teaching Writing
Planning Outlining and organizing
content information.
Problem Solving Writers establish goals that
include the purpose, the
audience, and the role of the
writer.
Revising Multiple drafts, getting
feedback, detecting and
correcting errors.
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cognitive Approaches to
Teaching Writing
Metacognition
Knowledge of
planning and
organization and
being receptive to
feedback in order
to become a good
writer
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Social Constructivist Approaches
to Teaching Writing
Assumptions: Approaches:
1. The social context Create a social context
plays an important that encourages writing
role in writing. Meaningful student-
2. Knowledgeable teacher conferences that
writers in the culture promote writing about
assist less personal experiences
knowledgeable Shared rich peer
writers. collaboration and
family/peer connections
produce new insights
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas
Mathematics
Developmental Technology and
Changes Math Instruction
Controversy in Some Constructivist
Math Education Principles
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Developmental Changes in
Mathematics
Pre-K–Grade 2 Count past 20, add/subtract
single digits
Grades 3–5 Multiplicative reasoning,
equivalence, and computational fluency
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Developmental Changes in
Mathematics
Grades 6–8 Algebra and geometry, quantitative
life solutions
Grades 9–12 Students should experience
algebra, geometry, statistics, probability, and
discrete mathematics
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Constructivist Principles for
Teaching Mathematics
With appropriate
Make math realistic prior knowledge,
and interesting make students
stretch their minds
to solve problems.
Make math curriculum
socially interactive
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Crack the Case
The Constructivist Math Classroom
1. What are the issues in this case?
2. The students in first and second grade seem to be
flourishing in this curriculum, while the older
students are struggling. Why might this be? Tie
your answer to a constructivist principle.
3. How should the teachers address parental
concerns regarding the new curriculum?
4. How should they address the concerns of the
algebra teacher?
5. What can the teachers do to help their students at
this point?
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas
Science
Constructivist
Science Education
Teaching Strategies
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Constructivist Strategies for
Teaching Science
Activities
to help
students
see how In-depth
Exploratio science experience
n of works s in a
everyday limited
science number of
problems content
areas
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Enter the Debate
Should teachers emphasize the scientific process
or scientific facts in science instruction?
PROCESS FACTS
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning and Cognition
in the Content Areas
Social Studies
What Is Social Constructivist
Studies? Approaches
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Social Studies Themes
(National Council for the Social Sciences, 2000)
Individuals, Individual
Groups, and Culture Development/
Institutions Identity
People, Power,
Places, and Authority,
Environments Governance
Social Studies
Time, Production,
Continuity, Distribution,
and Change Consumption
Science,
Global Technology, Civic Ideals
Connections and Society and Practices
© 2008 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Reflection & Observation
Reflection:
How has working with others affected
your learning experiences? Why?
Observation:
Based on what you observe in this
video clip, what do you believe are
the teacher’s goals for his students?
What cognitive and social skills are
these students using?
