Introduction to

Process Automation
Fundamentals of Process Control
The Importance of Process Control
Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process.
Precise control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process
applications.
PROCESS as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the
methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end products. The raw
materials, which either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix
of solids and liquids) state during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed,
heated or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end
product.
Process industries include the chemical, the oil and gas, the food and beverage, the
pharmaceutical, the water treatment, and the power industries.
PROCESS CONTROL refers to the methods that are used to control process
variables when manufacturing a product - proportion of ingredients, the temperature
of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under which
the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of an end product.
Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:
❑ Reduce variability ❑ Increase efficiency ❑ Ensure safety
The Importance of Process Control
Reduce Variability
Process control can reduce variability in
the end product, which ensures a
consistently high-quality product. For
example, in a gasoline blending process,
about 12 components may be blended to
make a specific grade of gasoline. No
precise control - the gasoline gets too
much of the high-octane components or
customers receiving a lower grade at a
higher price.
Reducing variability can also save money by reducing the need for product
padding to meet required product specifications. Padding refers to the process of
making a product of higher-quality than it needs to be to meet specifications.
When there is variability in the end product, manufacturers are forced to pad the
product to ensure that specifications are met, which adds to the cost. With
accurate, dependable process control, the setpoint can be moved closer to the
actual product specification and thus save the manufacturer money.
The Importance of Process Control
Increase Efficiency
Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize efficiency.
For example, a control point might be the temperature at which a chemical
reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature ensures process efficiency.
Manufacturers save money by minimizing the resources required to produce the
end product.
Ensure Safety
A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical reaction, may
result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control of all of the process
variables. The consequences of a run-away process can be catastrophic. Precise
process control may also be required to ensure safety.
For example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by controlling the inflow of air
used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gases is crucial in preventing
boiler implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of workers.
Control Theory Basics - The Control Loop
THREE TASKS
Control loops in the process control
industry work in the same way,
requiring three tasks to occur:
• Measurement - a level transmitter
(LT) measures the level in the tank
and transmits a signal associated
with the level reading to a controller
(LIC).
• Comparison - The controller compares the reading to a predetermined value, in
this case, the maximum tank level established by the plant operator, and finds
that the values are equal.
• Adjustment - The controller then sends a signal to the device that can bring
the tank level back to a lower level - a valve at the bottom of the tank. The
valve opens to let some liquid out of the tank.
Many different instruments and devices may or may not be used in control loops
(e.g., transmitters, sensors, controllers, valves, pumps), but the three tasks of
measurement, comparison, and adjustment are always present.
Control Theory Basics - Process Control Terms
Process control has its own set of common terms applying in control technology.
PROCESS VARIABLE
A process variable is a condition of the process fluid that can change the
manufacturing process in some way. Common process variables:
SETPOINT
Pressure
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is
desired to be maintained. For example, if a process Flow
temperature needs to kept within 5 °C of 100 °C, then Level
the setpoint is 100 °C measured by temperature sensor. Temperature
Contoller compares the temperature reading from the Density
sensor to the setpoint.
Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
If the temperature reading is 110 °C, then the controller
determines that the process is above setpoint and signals Liquid Interface
the fuel valve of the burner to close slightly until the Mass
process cools to 100 °C.
Conductivity
Set points can also be maximum or minimum values.
Control Theory Basics - Process Control Terms
MEASURED, PROCESS, AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES
Measured variable is a variable that is directly measured in order to control the
prcess. (temperature in the example above). In most instances, the measured
variable is also the process variable
Process variable is a variables which needs to be maintained at desired value
(setpoint).
Manipulated variable is a factor which is changed over the time to control process
variable.
ERROR is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can
be either positive or negative. The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or
eliminate error. Any error can be seen as having three major components.
Magnitude of the error is the deviation between the values of the setpoint and the
process variable. The magnitude of error at any point in time compared to the
previous error provides the basis for determining the change in error. The change in
error is also an important value.
Control Theory Basics - Process Control Terms
Duration
Duration refers to the length of time that
an error condition has existed.
Rate Of Change
The rate of change is shown by the slope
of the error plot.

OFFSET
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. In the
temperature control loop example, if the control system held the process fluid at
100.5 °C consistently, even though the setpoint is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5 °C
exists.
LOAD DISTURBANCE
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the
process variable. In the temperature control loop example, adding cold process
fluid to the vessel would be a load disturbance because it would lower the
temperature of the process fluid.
Control Theory Basics - Process Control Terms
CONTROL ALGORITHM
A control algorithm is a mathematical
expression of a control function with a
relationship :
V = f(± e)
Where V is a value control function f as a
response to error e.
MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Before process automation, people performed many of the process control tasks..
Control operations that involve human action to make an adjustment are called
manual control systems. Control operations in which no human intervention is
required are called automatic control systems.
A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, compared to a
setpoint, and action is taken to correct any deviation from setpoint.
An open control loop exists where the process variable is not compared, and
action is taken not in response to feedback on the condition of the process
variable, but is instead taken without regard to process variable conditions (For
example, based on a pre-set time interval).
Control Loop Equipment and Technology
PRIMARY ELEMENTS/SENSORS Pressure sensing
RTDs
Sensing devices measuring changes in the process
Thermocouples
are the first element in the control loop to measure
Orifice plates
the process variable, they are also called primary
Pitot tubes
elements. Primary elements are devices that cause
some change in their property with changes in Venturi tubes
process fluid conditions that can then be measured. Magnetic flow tubes
Coriolis flow tubes
TRANSDUCERS AND CONVERTERS
Radar emitters and receivers
A transducer is a device that translates a mechanical Ultrasonic emitters and
signal into an electrical signal. receivers
A converter is a device that converts one type of Annubar flow elements
signal into another type of signal. Vortex sheddar

TRANSMITTERS
Pressure transmitters
A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from Flow transmitters
a sensor or transducer into a standard signal and
Temperature transmitters
transmits that signal to a monitor or controller.
Level transmitters
Analytic (O2, CO and pH)
transmitters
Control Loop Equipment and Technology
SIGNALS
There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry to transmit the
process variable measurement from the instrument to a centralized control system.
Pneumatic Signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal
pipe in proportion to the measured change in a process variable. The common
industry standard pneumatic signal range is 3–15 psig.
Analog Signals - The most common standard electrical signal is the 4–20 mA
current signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small current through a set of
wires. Other common standard electrical signals include the 1–5 V (volts) signal
and the pulse output.
Digital Signals are discrete levels or values that are combined in specific ways to
represent process variables and diagnostic information. The methodology used to
combine the digital signals is referred to as protocol. Manufacturers may use either
an open or a proprietary digital protocol. Open protocols are those that anyone
who is developing a control device can use. Proprietary protocols are owned by
specific companies and may be used only with their permission. Open digital
protocols include the HART®, FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus, Profibus, DeviceNet, and
the Modbus® protocol.
Control Loop Equipment and Technology
INDICATORS
While most instruments are connected to a control system, operators sometimes
need to check a measurement on the factory floor at the measurement point. An
indicator makes this reading possible. An indicator is a human-readable device
that displays information about the process. Indicators may be as simple as a
pressure or temperature gauge or more complex, such as a digital read-out
device. Some indicators simply display the measured variable, while others have
control buttons that enable operators to change settings in the field.
RECORDERS
A recorder is a device that records the output of a measurement devices. Many
process manufacturers are required by law to provide a process history to
regulatory agencies, and manufacturers use recorders to help meet these
regulatory requirements. Recorders are used to gather data for trend analyses.
By recording the readings of critical measurement points and comparing those
readings over time with the results of the process, the process can be improved.
Different recorders display the data they collect differently. Some recorders list a
set of readings and the times the readings were taken; others create a chart or
graph of the readings. Recorders that create charts or graphs are called chart
recorders.
Control Loop Equipment and Technology
CONTROLLERS
A controller is a device that receives data from a
measurement instrument, compares that data to
a programmed setpoint, and signals a control
element to take corrective action. Local
controllers are usually one of the three types:
pneumatic, electronic or programmable.
Controllers always have an ability to receive
input, to perform a mathematical function with
the input, and to produce an output signal.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) - PLCs are
computers connected to a set of input / output
(I/O) devices and are programmed to respond to
inputs by sending outputs to maintain all
processes at setpoint.
Distributed control systems (DCSs) - DCSs are
controllers that additionally provide readings of
the status of the process, maintain databases
and advanced man-machine-interface.
Control Loop Equipment and Technology
CORRECTING ELEMENTS / FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS
The correcting or final control element is the part of the control system that acts
to physically change the manipulated variable. In most cases, the final control
element is a valve used to restrict or cut off fluid flow, but pump motors, louvers,
solenoids, and other devices can also be final control elements.
Final control elements are typically used to increase or decrease fluid flow.
In any control loop, the speed with which a final control element reacts to correct
a variable that is out of setpoint is very important. Many of the technological
improvements in final control elements are related to improving their response
time.
ACTUATORS
An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in
the final control device when signalled to do so. The most common example of an
actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or closes a valve in response to control
signals from a controller. Actuators are often powered pneumatically,
hydraulically, or electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot
valves, pistons, or electric motors are often parts of an actuator system.
ISA Symbology
The Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society (ISA) is one of the
leading process control trade and standards organizations. The ISA has
developed a set of symbols for use in engineering drawings and designs of
control loops (ISA S5.1 instrumentation symbol specification). ISA symbology
helps to demonstrate possible process control loop solutions on paper. Drawings
of this kind are known as piping and instrumentation drawings (P&ID).
ISA Symbology
SYMBOLS
A circle represents individual measurement
instruments, such as transmitters, sensors,
and detectors. A single horizontal line - the
instrument or function is located in a primary
location. A double line - the function is in an
auxiliary location. The absence of a line - the
function is field mounted. Dotted line - the
function or instrument is inaccessible.
A square with a circle inside represents
instruments that both display measurement
readings and perform some control function
as many modern transmitters are able to do
calculations and send control signals to final
control elements.
A hexagon represents computer functions,
such as those carried out by a controller.
A square with a diamond inside represents
PLCs.
ISA Symbology
Two triangles with apexes contacting each
other represent a valve in the piping. An
actuator is always drawn above the valve.
Directional arrows showing the flow
direction represent a pump.
Piping and connections:
• A heavy solid line - piping
• A thin solid line - process connections
to instruments
• A dashed line - electrical signals
• A slashed line - pneumatic signal tubes
• A line with circles - data links
Other connection symbols include capillary
tubing for filled systems (e.g., remote
diaphragm seals), hydraulic signal lines,
and guided electromagnetic or sonic
signals.
ISA Symbology
IDENTIFICATION LETTERS
Identification letters on the ISA symbols:
• The variable being measured (e.g., flow, pressure, temperature)
• The device’s function (e.g., transmitter, switch, valve, sensor, indicator)
• Some modifiers (e.g., high, low, multifunction)
ISA identification letter designations:
• The initial letter indicates the measured variable.
• The second letter indicates a modifier, readout, or device function.
• The third letter usually indicates either a device function or a modifier.
More info on the ISA Web site at http://www.isa.org.
TAG NUMBERS
Numbers on P&ID symbols represent instrument tag numbers. Often these
numbers are associated with a particular control loop.
ISA Symbology
ISA Symbology
The elements of ISA symbology used in a P&ID.
Controller Algorithms
The actions of controllers can be divided into
three groups based upon the functions of
their control mechanism. Each type of
contoller has advantages and disadvantages
and will meet the needs of different
applications.
DISCRETE CONTROLLERS are controllers
that have only two modes or positions: on
and off. A common example of a discrete
controller is a home hot water heater with .
the burner turns on or off depending on
water temperature.
This type of control doesn’t actually hold the
variable at setpoint, but keeps the variable
within proximity of setpoint in what is known
as a dead zone.
Controller Algorithms
MULTISTEP CONTROLLERS are controllers
that have at least one other possible position in
addition to on and off. As setpoint is approached,
the multistep controller takes intermediate steps
and the oscillation around setpoint is decreased.
CONTINUOUS CONTROLLERS automatically
compare the value of the PV to the SP to
determine if an error exists. If there is an error,
the controller adjusts its output according to the
tuning parameters that have been set in the
controller:
Magnitude of the correction is determined by
the proportional mode (P) of the controller.
Duration of the adjustment to the controller
output is determined by the integral mode (I) of
the controller
Speed at which a correction is made is
determined by the derivative mode (D) of the
controller.
Controller Tuning
Controllers are tuned in an effort to match the characteristics of the control
equipment to the process so that two goals are achieved:
is the foundation of process control measurement in that electricity:
• The system responds quickly to errors.
• The system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around the SP).
GAIN
Controller tuning is performed to adjust the manner in which final control element
responds to a change in error.
Adjusting the gain of the controller: change in controller input  change in
controller output  sufficient change in control element position to eliminate
error, but not so great a change as to cause instability or cycling.
Gain is defined simply as the change in output divided by the change in input.
Examples:
Change in Input to Controller - 10%; Change in Input to Controller - 10%;
Change in Controller Output - 20% Change in Controller Output - 5%
Gain = 20% / 10% = 2 Gain = 5% / 10% = 0.5
Controller Tuning
Gain Controllers May be Tuned to Help
Kc = Output % /  Input % Match the Valve to the Process

Fast and Slow Processes May Require

Different Controller Gain Settings
Proportional Mode
PROPORTIONAL ACTION - The
proportional mode is used to set the basic
gain value of the controller. The setting for
the proportional mode may be expressed as:
1. Proportional Gain 2. Proportional Band
PROPORTIONAL GAIN (Kc) is the
percentage change of the controller output
relative to the percentage change in
controller input and is expressed as:
Kc = Output % /  Input %
PROPORTIONAL BAND (PB) is another way of representing the same
information and is the percentage of change of the controller input span causing a
100% change in controller output.
PB = ( Input % /  Output %)x100
Converting Between PB and Gain
A simple equation converts gain to proportional band:
PB = 100%/Gain and Gain = 100%/PB
Kc =  Output% /  Input % PB=  Input(%Span) For 100%  Output
Proportional Mode
LIMITS OF PROPORTIONAL ACTION
Responds Only to a Change in error - Proportional action responds only to a
change in the magnitude of the error.
Does Not Return the PV to Setpoint - Proportional action will not return the PV to
setpoint. It will, however, return the PV to a value that is within a defined span
(PB) around the PV.
DETERMINING THE CONTROLLER OUTPUT
Controller Output - In a proportional only controller, the output is a function of
the change in error and controller gain.
Output Change, % = (Error Change, %) (Gain)
Example: If the setpoint is suddenly changed 10% with a proportional band
setting of 50%, the output will change as follows:
 Input = 10%; PB = 50%, so Gain = 100%/50% = 2
D Controller Output =  Input x Gain = 10% X 2 = 20%
Expressed in Units:
Controller Output Change = (0.2)(12 psi span) = 2.4 psi or
(0.2)(16 mA span) = 3.2 mA
Proportional Mode
PROPORTIONAL ACTION - CLOSED
LOOP
Loop Gain - Every loop has a critical or
natural frequency. This is the frequency
at which cycling may exist. This critical
frequency is determined by all of the loop
components. If the loop gain is too high
at this frequency, the PV will cycle
around the SP; i.e., the process will
become unstable.
Low Gain Example - PB is high (gain is
low). The loop is very stable, but an error
remains between SP and PV.
High Gain Example – PB is small (high
gain), which is causing instability and the
process variable is still not on set point.
Proportional Mode
Proportional Summary - For the proportional mode, controller output is a function
of a change in error. Proportional band is expressed in terms of the percentage
change in error that will cause 100% change in controller output. Proportional
gain is expressed as the percentage change in output divided by the percentage
change in input.
PB = ( Input % /  Output %)x100 = 100 / Gain
Gain =  Output % /  Input %
 Controller Output = (Error Change, %) (Gain)
1. Proportional Mode Responds only to a change in error
2. Proportional mode alone will not return the PV to SP.
Advantages – Simple
Disadvantages - Error
Settings - PB settings have the following effects:
Small PB (%)  Minimize Offset Large PB (%)  Large Offset
High Gain (%)  Possible cycling Low Gain  Stable Loop
Tuning - reduce PB (increase gain) until the process cycles following a
disturbance, then double the PB (reduce gain by 50%).
Integral Mode
INTEGRAL ACTION
Duration of Error and Integral
Mode - Another component of error is
the duration of the error, i.e., how long
has the error existed? The controller
output from the integral or reset mode
is a function of the duration of the error

OPEN LOOP ANALYSIS

Purpose - The purpose of integral action is to return the PV to SP. This is
accomplished by repeating the action of the proportional mode as long as an error
exists. With the exception of some electronic controllers, the integral or reset
mode is always used with the proportional mode.
Setting - Integral, or reset action, may be expressed in terms of:
• Repeats Per Minute - How many times the proportional action is repeated
each minute.
• Minutes Per Repeat - How many minutes are required for 1 repeat to occur.
Integral Mode
CLOSED LOOP ANALYSIS
Closed Loop With Reset - Adding reset
to the controller adds one more gain
component to the loop. The faster the
reset action, the greater the gain.
Slow Reset Example - In this example
the loop is stable because the total loop
gain is not too high at the loop critical
frequency.
Notice that the process variable does
reach set point due to the reset action.
Fast Reset Example - In the example
the reset is too fast and the PV is
cycling around the SP.
Integral Mode
RESET WINDUP
Reset windup is described as a situation
where the controller output is driven from a
desired output level because of a large
difference between the set point and the
process variable.
Shutdown - Reset windup is common on
shutdown as the process variable may go to
zero but the set point has not changed. This
large error drives the output to one extreme.
Startup - At start up, large process variable
overshoot may occur because the reset
speed prevents the output from reaching its
desired value fast enough.
Anti Reset Windup - Controllers can be
modified with an anti-reset windup (ARW).
The purpose of an anti-reset option is to
allow the output to reach its desired value
quicker, therefore minimizing the overshoot.
Integral Mode
SUMMARY
Integral (Reset) Summary - Output is a repeat of the proportional action as
long as error exists. The units are in terms of repeats per minute or minutes per
repeat.
Advantages - Eliminates error
Disadvantages - Reset windup and possible overshoot
Fast Reset (Large Repeats/Min.,Small Min./Repeat)
1.High Gain
2.Fast Return To Setpoint
3.Possible Cycling
Slow Reset (Small Repeats/Min.,Large Min./Repeats)
1.Low Gain
2.Slow Return To Setpoint
3.Stable Loop
Trailing and Error Tuning - Increase repeats per minute until the PV cycles
following a disturbance, then slow the reset action to a value that is 1/3 of the
initial setting.
Derivative Mode
DERIVATIVE ACTION
Derivative Mode Basics - Some large
and/or slow process do not respond well to
small changes in controller output. For
example, a large liquid level process or a large
thermal process (a heat exchanger) may react
very slowly to a small change in controller
output. To improve response, a large initial
change in controller output may be applied.
This action is the role of the derivative mode.
The derivative action is initiated whenever there is a change in the rate of change
of the error (the slope of the PV). The magnitude of the derivative action is
determined by the setting of the derivative mode of a PID controller and the rate
of change of the PV. The Derivative setting is expressed in terms of minutes.
Controller first compares the current PV with the last value of the PV. If there is a
change in the slope of the PV, the controller determines what its output would be
at a future point in time (determined by the value of the derivative setting, in
minutes). The derivative mode immediately increases the output by that amount.
Derivative Mode
Example. Assume a proportional band
setting of 50%. There is no reset at this
time. The proportional gain of 2 acting on a
10% change in setpoint results in a change
in controller output of 20%. As can be seen
the setting time after a change in error is
quite long. PV never becomes equal to the
SP because there is no reset.
Rate Effect - add the derivative mode with
a setting of 1 minute. Notice the very large
controller output at time 0. The output spike
is the result of rate action. Recall that the
change in output due to rate action is a
function of the speed (rate) of change of
error, which in a step is nearly infinite. The
addition of rate alone will not cause the
process variable to match the set point.
Derivative Mode
Effect of Fast Rate - increase the rate
setting to 10 minutes. The controller gain is
now much higher. As a result, both the IVP
(controller output) and the PV are cycling.
Increasing the rate setting will not cause the
PV to settle at the SP.
Need for Reset Action - It is now clear that
reset must be added to bring process variable
back to set point.
Applications - Because this component of the controller output is dependent on
the speed of change of the input or error, output will be very erratic if rate is used
on fast process or one with noisy signals. The controller output, as a result of rate,
will have the greatest change when the input changes rapidly.
Controller Option to Ignore Change in SP - Many controllers, especially digital
types, are designed to respond to changes in the PV only, and to ignore changes in
SP. This feature eliminates a major upset that would occur following a change in
the setpoint
Derivative Mode
SUMMARY
Derivative (Rate) Summary - Rate action is a function of the speed of change
of the error. The units are minutes. The action is to apply an immediate response
that is equal to the proportional plus reset action that would have occurred some
number of minutes I the future.
Advantages - Rapid output reduces the time that is required to return PV to SP
in slow process.
Disadvantage - Dramatically amplifies noisy signals; can cause cycling in fast
processes.
Settings
Large (Minutes) Small (Minutes)
1.High Gain 1.Low Gain
2.Large Output Change 2.Small Output Change
3.Possible Cycling 3.Stable Loop
Trial-and-Error Tuning - Increase the rate setting until the process cycles
following a disturbance, then reduce the rate setting to one-third of the initial
value
Controller algorithms
Proportional, PI, and PID Control Activities
By using all three control algorithms together, process operators can:
• Achieve rapid response to major disturbances with derivative control
• Hold the process at setpoint without major fluctuations with proportional control
• Eliminate offset with integral control
Not every process requires a full PID control strategy. If a small offset has no impact
on the process, then proportional control alone may be sufficient.
PI control is used where no offset can be tolerated, noise (temporary error readings
that do not reflect the true process variable condition) presents, and excessive dead
time (time after a disturbance before control action takes place) is not a problem.
In processes where no offset can be tolerated, no noise is present, and where dead
time is an issue, customers can use full PID control.
Common types of control loops /control algorithms types
Process Control Loops - Single Control Loops
Control loops can be divided into two types:
• Single variable loops
• Multi-variable loops.
FEEDBACK CONTROL
A feedback loop measures a process variable
and sends the measurement to a controller
for comparison to setpoint. If the process
variable is not at setpoint, control action is
taken to return the process variable to
setpoint.
Examples: 1) A transmitter measures the temperature of a fluid and, if necessary,
opens or closes a hot steam valve to adjust the fluid’s temperature, 2) Cruise
control system in an automobile. When the car begins to climb a hill, the speed
drops below setpoint and the controller adjusts the throttle to return the car’s
speed to setpoint.
Feedback loops are commonly used in the process control industry. The advantage
of a feedback loop is that it directly controls the desired process variable. The
disadvantage to feedback loops is that the process variable must leave setpoint for
action to be taken.
Single Control Loops - Examples
PRESSURE CONTROL LOOPS vary in
speed. The speed required in a pressure
control loop may be dictated by the
volume of the process fluid. High-volume
systems (e.g., large natural gas storage
facilities) tend to change more slowly
than low-volume systems.
FLOW CONTROL LOOPS are fast loops
that respond to changes quickly. Flow
control equipment must have fast
sampling and response times. Flow
transmitters are sensitive devices, they
can produce rapid fluctuations or noise in
the control signal. To compensate for
noise, damping function and filters are
applied. Temperature compensation is
accounted for in the flow calculation.
Typically, a flow sensor, a transmitter, a
controller, and a valve or pump are used
in flow control loops.
Single Control Loops - Examples
LEVEL CONTROL LOOPS - The speed of
changes depends on the size and shape of
the process vessel and the flow rate of the
input and outflow pipes. Measurement
technologies are available - radar, ultrasonic,
float gauge, and pressure measurement. The
final control element is usually a valve on the
input and/or outflow connections. To avoid
tank overflow, redundant level control
systems are used.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL LOOPS tend to
be relatively slow. RTDs or thermocouples are
typical temperature sensors. Temperature
transmitters and controllers are used. The
final control element for a temperature loop is
usually the fuel valve to a burner or a valve
to some kind of heat exchanger. Sometimes,
cool process fluid is added to the mix to
maintain temperature.
Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
MULTIVARIABLE LOOPS are
control loops in which a primary
controller controls one process
variable by sending signals to a
controller of a different loop that
impacts the process variable of the
primary loop.

For example, the primary process variable may be the temperature of the fluid in a
tank that is heated by a steam jacket. To control the primary variable
(temperature), the primary (master) controller signals the secondary (slave)
controller that is controlling steam pressure. The primary controller manipulates
the setpoint of the secondary controller to maintain the setpoint temperature of
the primary process variable.
When tuning a control loop, it is important to take into account the presence of
multivariable loops. The standard procedure is to tune the secondary loop before
tuning the primary loop because adjustments to the secondary loop impact the
primary loop. Tuning the primary loop will not impact the secondary loop tuning.
Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
FEEDFORWARD CONTROL is a control
system that anticipates load disturbances
and controls them before they can
impact the process variable. User must
have a mathematical model of how the
manipulated variables will impact the
process variable. Example of feedforward
loop in which a flow transmitter opens or
closes a hot steam valve based on how
much cold fluid passes through the flow
sensor.
An advantage of feedforward control is that error is prevented, rather than
corrected. But it is difficult to account for all possible load disturbances (outside
temperature, buildup in pipes, consistency of raw materials, humidity, and
moisture) in a system through feedforward control.
Feedforward systems should be used in cases where the controlled variable has
the potential of being a major load disturbance on the process variable ultimately
being controlled.
Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
FEEDFORWARD plus FEEDBACK
Because of the difficulty of accounting
for every possible load disturbance in a
feedforward system, feedforward
systems are often combined with
feedback systems.
Controllers with summing functions are
used in these combined systems to
total the input from both the
feedforward loop and the feedback
loop, and send a unified signal to the
final control element.
Example - feedforward-plus-feedback
loop in which both a flow transmitter
and a temperature transmitter provide
information for controlling a hot steam
valve.
Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
CASCADE CONTROL is a control system in
which a secondary (slave) control loop is set
up to control a variable that is a major
source of load disturbance for another
primary (master) control loop. The controller
of the primary loop determines the setpoint
of the summing contoller in the secondary
loop.

BATCH CONTROL
Batch processes are those processes that are taken from start to finish in batches.
For example, mixing the ingredients for a juice drinks is often a batch process.
Batch processes often involve getting the correct proportion of ingredients into the
batch. Level, flow, pressure, temperature, and often mass measurements are used
at various stages of batch processes.
A disadvantage of batch control is that the process must be frequently restarted.
Start-up presents control problems because, typically, all measurements in the
system are below setpoint at start-up. Another disadvantage is that as recipes
change, control instruments may need to be recalibrated.
Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
RATIO CONTROL
Imagine a process in which an acid must be diluted with water in the proportion
two parts water to one part acid. If a tank has an acid supply on one side of a
mixing vessel and a water supply on the other, a control system could be
developed to control the ratio of acid to water, even though the water supply
itself may not be controlled. This type of control system is called ratio control.
Ratio control is used in many applications and involves a controller that receives
input from a flow measurement device on the unregulated (wild) flow. The
controller performs a ratio calculation and signals the appropriate setpoint to
another controller that sets the flow of the second fluid so that the proper
proportion of the second fluid can be added. Ratio control might be used where a
continuous process is going on and an additive is being put into the flow .
Multi-Variable / Advanced Control Loops
SELECTIVE CONTROL refers to a control system in which the more important
of two variables will be maintained.
For example, in a boiler control system, if fuel flow outpaces air flow, then
uncombusted fuel can build up in the boiler and cause an explosion.
Selective control is used to allow for an air-rich, but never a fuel-rich mixture.
Selective control is most often used when equipment must be safety maintained,
even at the cost of not maintaining an optimal process variable setpoint.
FUZZY CONTROL is a form of adaptive control in which the controller uses fuzzy
logic to make decisions about adjusting the process.
Fuzzy logic is a form of computer logic where whether something is or is not
included in a set is based on a grading scale in which multiple factors are
accounted for and rated by the computer.
The essential idea of fuzzy control is to create a kind of artificial intelligence that
will account for numerous variables, formulate a theory of how to make
improvements, adjust the process, and learn from the result.
Because a machine makes process control changes without consulting humans,
fuzzy control removes from operators some of the ability, but none of the
responsibility, to control a process.