Chapter 14

Chapter 14
Electronic
Instruments
Dr.Debashis De
Associate Professor
West Bengal University of Technology
Contents:
 14-1 Introduction
 14-2 Components of the Cathode-Ray
Oscilloscope
 14-3 Cathode-Ray Tube
 14-4 Time-Base Generators
 14-5 Measurements Using the
 Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
 14-6 Types of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscopes
 14-7 Sweep Frequency Generator
 14-8 Function Generator
 14-9 Sine Wave Generator
 14-10 Square Wave Generator
 14-11 AF Signal Generator
Objectives:
 This final chapter discusses the key instruments of
electronic measurement with special emphasis on the most
versatile instrument of electronic measurement—the cathode-
ray oscilloscope (CRO).
 The objective of this book will remain unrealized
without a discussion on the CRO.
 The chapter begins with the details of
construction of the CRO, and proceeds to examine the active
and passive mode input–output waveforms for filter circuits and
lead-lag network delay.
 This will be followed by a detailed study of the
dual beam CRO and its uses in op-amp circuit integrator,
differentiator, inverting and non-inverting circuits, comparative
waveform study, and accurate measurement with impeccable
visual display.
 In addition to the CRO, the chapter also examines
the sweep frequency generator, the function generator, the sine
wave generator, the
square wave generator and the AF signal generator.
INTRODUCTION:
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a multipurpose
display instrument used for the observation,
measurement , and analysis of waveforms by plotting
amplitude along y-axis and time along x-axis.
 CRO is generally an x-y plotter; on a single screen it can
display different signals applied to different channels. It
can measure amplitude, frequencies and phase shift of
various signals. Many physical quantities like
temperature, pressure and strain can be converted into
electrical signals by the use of transducers, and the
signals can be displayed on the CRO.
 A moving luminous spot over the screen displays the
signal. CROs are used to study waveforms, and other
time-varying phenomena from very low to very high
frequencies.
 The central unit of the oscilloscope is the cathode-ray
tube (CRT), and the remaining part of the CRO consists
of the circuitry required to operate the cathode-ray tube.
Block diagram of a cathode-ray
oscilloscope:
COMPONENTS OF THE CATHODE-RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE:
The CRO consists of the following:

(i) CRT
(ii) Vertical amplifier
(iii) Delay line
(iv) Horizontal amplifier
(v) Time-base generator
(vi) Triggering circuit
(vii) Power supply
CATHODE-RAY TUBE:
electron gun or electron emitter, the deflecting
 The
system and the fluorescent screen are the three major

components of a general purpose CRT. A detailed diagram of the
cathode-ray oscilloscope is given in Fig. 14-2.
Electron Gun:
 In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted,

converted into a sharp beam and focused upon the fluorescent
screen.
 The electron beam consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a
control grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing anode.
 The electrodes are connected to the base pins. The cathode
emitting the electrons is surrounded by a control grid with a
fine hole at its centre.
 The accelerated electron beam passes through the fine hole.
 The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of
electrons in the electron beam, and consequently, the
brightness of the spot on the CRO screen is controlled.
Deflection Systems:
 Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is
used in a general purpose oscilloscope. The deflecting
system consists of a pair of horizontal and vertical
deflecting plates.
 Let us consider two parallel vertical deflecting
plates P1 and P2. The beam is focused at point O on the
screen in the absence of a deflecting plate voltage.
 If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1

with respect to plate P2, the negatively charged
electrons are attracted towards the positive plate P1,
and these electrons will come to focus at point Y1 on
the fluorescent screen.
Deflection Systems:
The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage
between the plates. If the polarity of the deflecting voltage is
reversed, the spot appears at the point Y2, as shown in Fig. 14-3(a).
Deflection Systems:
 To deflect the beam horizontally, an alternating voltage is applied to the horizontal
deflecting plates and the spot on the screen horizontally, as shown in Fig. 14-3(b).
 The electrons will focus at point X2. By changing the polarity of voltage, the beam
will focus at point X1. Thus, the horizontal movement is controlled along X1OX2 line.
MEASUREMENTS USING THE CATHODE-RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE:
1) Measurement of Frequency:
MEASUREMENTS USING THE CATHODE-RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE:
2) Measurement of Phase:
3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous

Figures:
TYPES OF THE CATHODE-RAY
OSCILLOSCOPES:
 The categorization of CROs is done on the basis of whether
they are digital or analog. Digital CROs can be further classified as
storage oscilloscopes.
 1. Analog CRO: In an analog CRO, the amplitude, phase and frequency
are measured from the displayed waveform, through direct manual
reading.
 2. Digital CRO: A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal
information, i.e., the time, voltage or frequency along with signal display.
It consists of an electronic counter along with the main body of the CRO.
 3. Storage CRO: A storage CRO retains the display up to a substantial
amount of time after the first trace has appeared on the screen. The
storage CRO is also useful for the display of waveforms of low-frequency
signals.
 4. Dual-Beam CRO: In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams fall on a
single CRT. The dual-gun CRT generates two different beams.
 These two beams produce two spots of light on
the CRT screen which make the simultaneous observation of two different
signal waveforms possible. The comparison of input and its
corresponding output becomes easier using the dual-beam CRO.
POINTS TO REMEMBER:
 1. CRO is used to study waveforms.
 2. CRT is the main component of a CRO.
 3. Prosperous P31 is used for the fluorescent screen of a CRO.
 4. A CRO has the following components:
 (a) Electron gun
 (b) Deflecting system
 (c) Florescent screen
 5. Lissajous figures are used to measure frequency and phase
of the waves under study.
 6. A time-base generator produces saw-tooth voltage.
 7. An oscilloscope amplifier is used to provide a faithful
representation of input signal applied to its input terminals.

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Chapter 14

The CRO consists of the following:

system and the fluorescent screen are the three major

 In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted,

 If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1

3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous

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