Organization of the IBM

Personal Computer

Chapter-3

Prepared by~
Mohammad Samawat Ullah
Assistant Professor, Department of CS
AIUB
Email: [email protected]
 Overview
• A brief survey of 8086 family

• The architecture of the 8086

• The registers and their special functions

• Overall structure of the IBM PC

• The memory organization

• I/O ports, DOS and BIOS routines

Intel 8086 Family of Microprocessors

 Based on Intel 8086 family of

microprocessor

• IBM PC (8088)

• PC XT (8088)

• PC AT (80286)

• PS/1 (80286)

• PS/2 (8086/ 80286/ 80386/ 80486)

• Some PC compatible Laptop models (80186)

 The 8086 and 8088
Microprocessors
8086 8088
 The first 16-bit
 Internally 8088 is
Microprocessor that can
essentially same as
process 16-bits of data at
8086.however, externally
a time. [1978].8086 has
8088 has a 8-bit data bus
16-bit data bus
 It is less expensive to build
 8086 has faster clock rate
the computer around 8088
and thus has better
[used to build IBM original
performance.
PC]

 Both 8086 and 8088 have the same instruction set and it
forms the basic set of instruction for other
microprocessors in the family.
 80186 and 80188 Microprocessors

80186 80188

 80186 is the enhanced  80188 is the enhanced

version of 8086 version of 8088

 80816 incorporates with  80818 incorporates with

all the functions of the all the functions of the
8086 in addition to some 8088 in addition to some
support chips support chips
 Both 80186 and 80188 can execute some extended
instruction set.
 80186 and 80188 have no significant advantage over
the 8086 and 8088.
 80186 and 80188 were overshadowed very soon due to
the development of 80286.
 The 80286 Microprocessor
• 80286 is 16-bit microprocessor and was introduced in 1982.

• It operates faster than the 8086 [12.5 MHz vs 10MHz]

• Two modes of operation

• Real address:

 In this mode, microprocessor behaves like 8086 and programs for 8086 can
be executed without modification.

• Protected Virtual address:

 Multitasking: 80286 supports multi-tasking. So, it can operate several

tasks at the same time.

 Memory protection: Protects the memory used by one program from the
actions of another program.

• More addressable Memory: The protected mode can address 16 megabytes

of memory as opposed to 1MB in 8086 and 8088

• Virtual Memory in protected mode: 80286 can consider external storage or

disk as a physical memory and execute large programs [up to 1GB or 2^30
Memory Recall (Bonus-1)
• What is the main difference between
80286 and 8086 processor?
 The 80386 and 80386SX
Microprocessor
80386
• 80386 or 386 is the first 32-bit microprocessor introduced
in 1985
• Much faster than 80286 as it has 32-bit data path, high
clock rate ( up to 33MHz) and the ability to execute
instruction in fewer clock cycles than 80286 .
• Like 80286, the 386 can operate in two operational mode
( real or protected).
• In real mode, 386 behaves like and 8086, however, it can
emulate the 80286 in protected mode
• The 386 also has a virtual 8086 mode that is designed to
run multiple 8086 applications under memory protection.
• The 386 protected mode can address 4 gigabytes of
physical memory and 64 terabytes of virtual memory.

80386SX
• The 386SX has essentially the same internal structure as
the 386, however, it has only a 16-bit data bus.
 The 80486 and 80486SX
Microprocessor
• 80486 or 486 is another 32-bit microprocessor introduced in 1989.
• 486 is the fastest and most powerful microprocessor in the family
• 486 incorporates all the functions of the 386 with some other
supportive chips including 80387 numeric processor like 80387.
• 80387 numeric processor performs floating-point number
operations.
• An 8-KB cache memory serves as a fast memory area to buffer the
data coming from a slower memory unit.
• With numeric processor, cache memory and faster design, 486 is
three times faster than 386 running at the same clock speed.
80486SX
• The 486SX has essentially the same internal structure as the 486,
however, it does not have any floating point processor.
 Organization of the
8086/8088 Microprocessor

• 8086 and 8088 has the simplest structure

and they provide the insights to the most
advanced processors.
• As both 8086 and 8088 essentially has the
same structure, we will use the term “8086”
for both.
 Registers
• Information inside the microprocessor is stored in registers.

• Registers are classified according to their functions.

 Data register holds the data for an operation

 Address register holds the address for an instruction or data.

 Status register keeps the current status of the processor.

• 8086 has four general registers.

 Address registers: 1) segment 2) pointer and 3) index

register

 Status Register: 4) FLAGS Register

• There are total fourteen 16-bit registers.

*** The good news is, we DO NOT need to memorize them at all. it
 8086 Registers
General Accumulator

Register Base

Counter

Data

Segment
Register

Pointer and
Index
Register

FLAGS
Register
 AX: Accumulator Register
 *** Address registers store addresses
and instructions and data in memory.

 Use of AX register generates shortest machine

code.

 Thus, AX is preferred register to use in

arithmetic, logic and data transfer
instructions.

 In multiplication and division, one of the

numbers involved must be in AX or AL.

 Input and Output also require the use of AL or

 BX: Base Register
 BX also serves as an address register

i.e. Table look-up instruction (XLAT)

CX: Count Register

 CX used as Program Loop counter.

 CX also used as a counter (REP-repeat) to control string operations.

 CL is used as count in bit rotation and shifting instructions

DX: Data Register

 DX is used in multiplication, division and I/O operations
Memory Recall (Bonus-1)

 List One special function of AX, BX, CX,

and DX
 Segment Registers:
CS,DS,SS,ES
• Memory is a collection of bytes.

• Each memory bytes has an address starting with 0.

• The 8086 assigns 20-bit physical address to its

memory location.[i.e. we can address 2^20(1MB) of
memory]. Thus the first byte of the memory
addresses:
Hex
Binary representation
Representation
0000 0000 0000 0000
00000h
0000
0000 0000 0000 0000
00001h
0001
0000 0000 0000 0000
00010h
0010
***So what will be the highest address of 20-bit memory
address?
 Using 20-bit Address in 16-bit
Processor
• To explain segment register’s function, lets have a look on the idea of
memory segments.

• How can we fit 20 bit address into 16 bit register?

Memory Partitioning into segments

• A memory segment is a block of 2^16(64KB) consecutive memory bytes.

• Each segment is identified by segment number.[starts with 0]

• A segment number is 16-bit [thus, highest value FFFFh].

• Within a segment, a memory location is specified by giving an offset.

• Offset: Number of bytes from the beginning of segment.

i.e. for a 64KB segment, the offset can be given as16-bit number.

 The first byte in a segment has offset 0000h.

 The Last byte in a segment has offset FFFFh

 Segment : Offset address
• A memory segment may be specified by
providing a segment number and an offset.
• Memory segment is written in the form of
segment : offset.

• The representation of segment : offset is

known as logical address.
e.g. A4FB:4872h means offset 4872h within
segment A4FBh
How to obtain 20-bit physical address in
a 16-bit microprocessor?
1. The 8086 shifts the segment address 4-bits to the left
[i.e. multiply by 10h].

2. Add the offset address to the segment address.

i.e. to get the 20-bit physical address from

A4FB:4872h,

A4FB0h [multiplied segment with 10]

4872h

======

A9822h [20-bit physical address]

 Task
 Find the 20-bit address of
ABC4:12BAh?
 Location of Segments
• Segment 0 starts at address 0000:0000h=00000h and ends at
0000:FFFFh=0FFFFh.

• Segment 1 starts at address 0001:0000h=00010h and ends at

0001:FFFFh=1000Fh.

• Segment 2 starts at address 0010:0000h=00100h and ends at

0010:FFFFh=100FFh.

 Observations:
• The segments start at every 10h =16 bytes

• The starting address of a segment always ends with 0h.

• We call 16 bytes a paragraph.

• An address divisible by 16 (ends with hex 0 ) is called a

paragraph boundary.
 Example-1
 Physical address of a memory location is 1256Ah, find the
address in segment : offset form for segment 1256h?

Physical address = Segment X 10h + offset

Offset = Physical address - Segment

Lets consider, X = offset in 1256h. Thus,

 1256Ah=12560h [segment 1256 multiplied by 10] + X

 X = 1256Ah-12560h

 X = Ah

 X = 000Ah

Segment : offset = 1256:000Ah

 Example-2
 Physical address of a memory location is 1256Ah,
find the address in segment : offset form for
segment 1240h?

Lets consider, X = offset in 1240h. Thus,

 1256Ah=12400h [segment 1256 multiplied by 10] + X

 X = 1256Ah-12400h

 X = 16Ah

 X = 016Ah

Segment : offset = 1240:016Ah

Calculate the Segment Number
 A physical address 80FD2h and offset BFD2h is given.
Calculate the segment .

Physical address = Segment X 10h + offset

Thus,

 Segment X 10h = Physical address - offset

 Segment = (Physical address - offset ) / 10h

 Segment = (80FD2h - BFD2h)/10h

 Segment = (75000h)/10h

Segment = 7500h
 Task
 Find the physical address of memory location
0A51:CD90h ?
 A memory location has physical address
4A37Bh.Compute the offset if segment
number is 40FFh.
 Compute the Segment if offset number is
123Bh.
 Program Segments
• Machine language program consists instruction and data.

• Processor uses stack to implement procedure calls.

• The program code are loaded into Code Segment (CS) of

memory.

• Data are loaded into Data segment (DS) of memory

• Stack are loaded into Stack Segment (SS ) of memory

• The 8086 uses four segment registers (CS,DS,SS, ES) to hold

segment numbers.

• Any program needs access for second data segment may use
Extra segment (ES).
Program Segments(Cont'd…)
• A memory segment does not necessarily
occupy the entire 64KB in a memory
segment.
• Programs segment of less than 64KB are
placed close together due to its overlapping
nature.
• At any given time, only four memories are
active and thus these four segments are
accessible.
• However, contents of memory segments
can be modified by a program to address
different segments.
• [Ref: Figure:3.3]
 Pointer and Index
Registers
• The registers SP,BP,SI and DI usually point to
the memory locations.
• Registers contain the offset address of
Memory location
• Unlike segment registers Index registers can be
used in arithmetic and other operations.
 Stack Pointer (SP)
• The stack pointer (SP) is used together with
SS to access the stack segment.

Base Pointer (BP)

• BP is used to access data on the stack.

• Unlike SP, BP can be used to access data in the other

segments
 Source Index (SI)
• SI is used to point to memory locations in the
data segment addressed by DS.

• Consecutive memory locations can be accessed

by incrementing the content of SI.

Destination Index (DI)

• DI is also used to point memory location.

• String operations use DI to access

memory locations addressed by ES.
Memory Recall (Bonus-1)

 What is the primary difference

between Index registers and
segment registers?
Instruction Pointer (IP)
• The memory registers are for data access.

• The 8086 uses CS and IP registers to access

instructions.

• CS contains the segment number and IP

contains the offset of next register.

• IP is updated each time after an instruction

execution to point to the next pointer.

• Unlike other registers, IP can not be directly

manipulated by an instruction. (i.e. an
instruction may not contain IP as its operand.)
 FLAGS Register
• FLAGS register is used to indicate the status of the
microprocessor.

• Indication is done by setting of individual bits [flags].

• There are two kinds of FLAGS

 Status flags: Reflect the result of an instruction executed

by the processor. [More: chapter-5]

e.g. If AX-BX results to 0, the ZF (Zero Flag) is set to 1

(True).

 Control flags: Enable or Disable certain operations of the

processor

e.g. if IF (Interrupt Flag) is cleared (set to 0), inputs from

keyboard are ignored by the processor. [More: chapter-11]
The Organization of the PC
• A computer is made up of both Hardware
and Software.
• Software controls the hardware operations.
• Thus, we need to understand the
coordination of hardware and software to
completely understand the operation of
computer.
 The Operating System
• The purpose of OS is to coordinate the operations between all
the devices of the computer system.

• The OS functions:

 Reading and executing the command typed by users

 Performing I/O operations

 Generating error messages

 Managing memory and other resources

• DOS was designed for 8086 processors

DOS could manage only 1 MB memory and doesn’t support

multitasking.
 DOS OS
• DOS performs reading and writing
information on disk
• Programs and other information stored on
a disk are organized into files.
• Each file has a file name [within 1 t0 8
characters.] followed by an extension.
• The extension is used for file type.
 BIOS
• The BIOS routine perform I/O operation for
the PC

• However, DOS routine operates over the

entire PC family.

• BIOS routines are machine specific.

• BIOS also performs circuit checking and

loading of DOS routine.

• The address of the BIOS routines is called

interrupt vectors.
 Memory Organization of
the PC
• 8086/8088 processor is capable of addressing
1MB or memory.

• But, all the memory can not be used by

application program as some memory locations
have special meaning to the processor.

e.g. First KB (00000h to 003FFh) is used for

interrupt vectors.

• Other memory locations are reserved by IBM for

special purposes (i.e. BIOS routines and Video
display memory).
 Memory Partition into Disjoint Segments
• Partitioning the memory into disjoint segments. [Ref: Figure: 3.4]

• start Segment 00000h= 0000:0000 ends at Segment 0FFFFh

• start Segment 10000h=1000:0000 ends at Segment 1FFFFh

• start Segment 20000h=2000:0000 ends at Segment 2FFFFh

………

• start Segment F0000h ends at Segment FFFFFh [Total 16 disjoint

segments]

• The Only first 10 disjoint memory segments are used by DOS for loading
and running application programs.

• The ten segments 0000h to 9000h gives 640KB.

• The memory sizes of 8086/8088 based PCs are given in terms of these
memory segments.

e.g. a PC with 512-KB memory has eight of these memory segments.

Memory Map of the PC
BIOS F0000h

Researved E0000h
Researved D0000h

Researved C0000h
Video B0000h
Video A0000h
Application Program Area

DOS

BIOS and DOS data 00400h

Interrupt Vectors 00000h

 Start-up Operation
• When PC is powered up, the 8086/8088 processor is put in reset
state.

• The register CS = FFFFh and IP = 0000h.

• First instruction it executes, is located at FFFF0h.

• This memory location is ROM.

• ROM contains an instruction that transfers control to the starting

point of the BIOS routines.

• The BIOS routine first check for system and memory errors.

• BIOS routines then initialize the interrupt vectors and BIOS data
area.

• Finally, BIOS loads the operating system from the system disk.

• step-1: BIOS loads boot program

• step-2: Boot program loads the actual operating systems routines

• Boot program is named so because computer pulling itself by