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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Chapter - 11
Boolean
Algebra
1. Introduction:
George Boole, a nineteenth-century English Mathematician,
developed a system of logical algebra by which reasoning can be
expressed mathematically. In 1854, Boole published a classic book, “An
Investigation of the Laws of thought” on which he founded the
Mathematical theories of Logic and Probabilities,
Boole‟s system of logical algebra, now called Boolean algebra, was
investigated as a tool for analyzing and designing relay switching circuits
by Claude E. Shannon at the Massachusetts institute of Technology in
1938. Shannon, a research assistant in the Electrical Engineering
Department, wrote a thesis entitled “A” symbolic Analysis of Relay and
Switching Circuits. As a result of his work, Boolean algebra is now, used
extensively in the analysis and design of logical circuits. Today Boolean
algebra is the backbone of computer circuit analysis.
2. Two Valued Logical Symbol:
Aristotle made use of a two valued logical system in devising a
method for getting to the truth, given a set of true assumptions. The
symbols that are used to represent the two levels of a two valued logical
system are 1 and 0. The symbol 1 may represent a closed switch, a true
statement, an “on” lamp, a correct action, a high voltage, or many other
things. The symbol “O” may represent on open switch, a false statement,
an “off” lamp, an incorrect action, a low voltage, or many other things.
For the electronics circuits and signals a logic 1 will represent
closed switch, a high voltage, or an “on” lamp, and a logic 0 will represent
an open switch, low voltage, or an “off” lamp. These describe the only two
states that exist in digital logic systems and will be used to represent the in
and out conditions of logic gates.
3. Fundamental Concepts of Boolean Algebra:
Boolean algebra is a logical algebra in which symbols are used to
represent logic levels. Any symbol can be used, however, letters of the
alphabet are generally used. Since the logic levels are generally associated
with the symbols 1 and 0, whatever letters are used as variables that can
take the values of 1 or 0.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra has only two mathematical operations, addition

and multiplication. These operations are associated with the OR gate and
the AND gate, respectively.
4. Logical Addition:
When the + (the logical addition) symbol is placed between two
variables, say X and Y, since both X and Y can take only the role 0 and 1,
we can define the + Symbol by listing, all possible combinations for X and
Y and the resulting value of X + Y.
The possible input and out put combinations may
arranged as
follows:
0+0=0
0 + 1 =1
1+0 =1
1+1 =1
This table represents a standard binary addition, except for the
last entry. When both' X and Y represents 1‟s, the value of X + Y is 1. The
symbol + therefore does not has the “Normal” meaning, but is a Logical
addition symbol. The plus symbol (+) read as "OR", therefore X +Y is
read as X or Y.
This concept may be extended to any number of variables for
example A + B + C +D = E Even if A, B, C and D all had the values 1, the
sum of the values i.e. is 1.
5. Logical Multiplication:
We can define the "." (logical multiplication) symbol or AND
operator by listing all possible combinations for (input) variables X and Y
and the resulting (output) value of X. Y as,
0 .0= 0
0 .1 = 0
1 .0 = 0
1 .1 = 1
Note :Three of the basic laws of Boolean algebra are the same as in
ordinary algebra; the commutative law, the associative law and the
distributive law.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra
The commutative law for addition and multiplication of two
variables is written as,
A+B=B +A
And A.B=B. A
The associative law for addition and multiplication of three
variables is written as,
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

And (A .B) . C = A. (B. C)

The distributive law for three variables involves, both addition and
multiplication and is written as,
A (B+ C) = A B + AC
Note that while either '+' and „.‟ s can be used freely. The two cannot
be mixed without ambiguity in the absence of further rules.
For example does A . B + C means (A . B) + C or A . (B+ C)? These
two form different values for A = O, B = 1 and C = 1, because we have

(A . B) + C = (0.1) + 1 = 1

and A . (B + C) = 0 . (1 + 1) = 0
which are different. The rule which is used is that „.‟ is always performed
before '+'. Thus X . Y + Z is (X.Y) + Z.
11.6 Logic Gates:
A logic gate is defined as a electronics circuit with two or more
input signals and one output signal. The most basic logic Circuits are OR
gates, AND gates, and invertors or NOT gates. Strictly speaking, invertors
are not logic gates since they have only one input signal; however They
are best introduced at the same time as basic gates and will therefore be
dealt in this section.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

OR Gate:
An OR gate is a logic circuit with two or more input signals and
one output signal. The output signal will be high (logic 1) if any one input
signal is high (logic 1). OR gate performs logical addition
The symbol for the logic OR gate is
X

OR X+Y= Z

Fig. 1
A circuit that will functions as an OR gate can be implemented in
several ways. A mechanical OR gate can be fabricated by connecting two
switches in parallel as shown in figure 2.
X

Fig. 2 Y

V =5v Z

Truth Table for a switch circuit operation as an OR gate.

Table – 1
Switch X Switch Y Output Z

Open Open 0

Open Closed 5V

Closed Open 5V

Closed Closed 5V

Note that for the switch circuit were use diodes and resistors,
Transistors and resistors and other techniques to control the voltage and
resistance.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Note: If the switch is "on", it is represented by 1, and if, it is "off", it

is represented by 0.
Truth Table for a Two-input OR gate.
Table - 2
In Put Out Put

X Y Z

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

Truth table for a three in put OR gate.

Table – 3
A B C X
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
No. of combinations = 2 n, where n is number of variables.
AND Gate:
An AND gate is a logic circuit with two or more input signals
and one output signal. The output signal of an AND gate is high (logic 1)
only if all inputs signals are high (Logic 1).
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

An AND gate performs logical multiplication on inputs. The

symbol for AND gate is

X
X.Y
=Z
Y

Fig.3

A circuit that will functions as an AND gate can be implemented in

several ways. A mechanical AND gate can be fabricated by connecting two
switches in series as show in fig. 4

Fig.4
Truth Table for a switch circuit operation as an
AND gate.
Table – 4
Switch X Switch Y Output Z

Open Open 0

Open Closed 0

Closed Open 0

Closed Closed 5V
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Truth Table for a Two-input AND gate

Table - 5
In Put Out Put

X Y Z

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Truth Table for a three input AND gate.

Table 6
Inputs Output

A B C X
0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 1 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 0

1 1 1 1

Complementation:
The logical operation of complementary or inverting a variable is
performed in the Boolean Algebra. The purpose of complementation is to
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

invert the, input signal, since there are only two values that variables can
assume in two-value logic system, therefore if the input is 1, the output is
0 and if the input is 0 the output is 1. The symbol used to represent
complementation of a variable is a bar (-) above the variable, for example
_
the complementation of A is written as A and is read as “complement of
A” or “A not”.
Since variables can only be equal to 0 or 1, we can say that
_ _
O=1 Or 1 =O
=
Also O=O Or =1
Invertors Or NOT gate:
An inventor is a gate with only one

input signal and one output signal; the output signal is always the
.

opposite or complement of the input signal.

An invertor is also called a NOT gate because the output not the
same as the input.
Symbol of inverter or NOT gate is
NX X

Fig.5 (i)

NX X XX

Fig.5 (ii)
Fig.5(ii) (Two invertors in series)
Fig. 5
The circle at the output or input indicates inversion. It also
distinguish between the symbol for the NOT gate or the symbol for an
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

operational amplifier or certain types of buffers, because the symbol -►-

can also be used for diode.
Truth Table for a NOT circuit
Table – 7
In put Out put
0 1
1 0
NOTE :A word is a group (or string) of binary bits that represents a
closed instruction or data,
Example 1: How many input words in the Truth Table of an 6 -
input OR gate? Which, input word produce a high
output?
Solution:
The total number of input word‟s = 2 n = 26 =32, where n is
number of inputs. In an OR gate 1 or more-high inputs produce a high
output. Therefore the word of 000000 results in low outputs all other input
words produce a high output.
7. Basic Duality in Boolean Algebra:
We state the duality theorem without proof. Starting with a
Boolean relation, we can derive another Boolean relation by
1. Changing each OR (+) sign to an AND (.) sign
2. Changing each AND (.) sign to an OR (+) sign.
3. Complementary each 0 and 1
For instance
A+0=A
The dual relation is A . 1 = A
Also since A (B + C) = AB + AC by distributive law. Its dual
relation is A + B C = (A + B) (A + C)
8. Fundamental Laws and Theorems of Boolean
1 .Algebra:
X+0=X
2. X + 1 = OR operations
3. 1 X + X
=X
4.
X + X =1
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

5. X . 0 =0

6. X . 1 =X AND operations

7. X.X=X

8. X.X= 0
==
9. X=X Double complement

10. X+Y=Y+X Commutative

11. laws XY = YX
12. (X + Y ) +Z = X +(Y + Z) Associative laws
13. (X . Y). Z =X. (Y. Z)
14. X (Y + Z) = XY + XZ Distribution Law
15. X + Y .Z = (X + Y) . (X + Z) Dual of Distributive Law

16. X + XZ = X Laws of absorption

17. X (X + Z) = X

18. X+ X Y =X+Y Identity Theorems

19. X ( X +Y) =X.Y

20. X+Y = X . Y De Morgan's Theorems

21. X.Y = X + Y
Proof of Boolean Algebra Rules:
Every rule can be proved by the application of rules and by perfect
Induction.
Rule 15:
(i) This rule does not apply to normal algebra We follow:
(X + Y) (X + Z) = XX + XZ +YX + YZ
=X+ XZ +YX + YZ,

X.X=X
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra
= X (1 + Z) + YX + YZ
= X + YX + YZ, 1+Z=1

= X (1 + Y) + Y Z–
1+Y=1
= X + YZ
(ii)
Proof by Perfect induction Method:
Truth Table-8 for the R.H.S. (X + Y) (X+ Z)
and for L.H.S. X + YZ
X Y Z X+Y X+Z YZ (X+Y)(X+Z) X+YZ

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

R.H.S. = L.H.S.
Rule .16 X +XZ =X
L.H.S. =X + XZ = X(1 + Z) = X. 1 = X, I+Z=1
= R.H.S.
Rule 17: X(X +Z) =X
L.H.S. = X (X + Z)
=X X +XZ By distributive law
=X +XZ, as X.X = X
=X (1 +Z), As 1 +Z =1
=X.1
=X
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Rule 18: (i) X+XY =X + Y

L.H.S. = X + X Y = (X + X ) . (X +Y) By rule 15 dual

Of distributive law.

= 1 . (X + Y) as X + X = 1
=X+Y
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
(ii) Proof by perfect Induction Method:

Truth Table 9 for L.H.S. X + X Y and for R.H.S. X + Y

X Y X+Y
X XY X+XY
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
L.H.S. =R.H.S.
Rule 19:
(i) X.( X +Y) = X . Y

L.H.S. = X ( X + Y) =X X +X Y By distributive
law
= 0 +XY as X . X =0
=X Y
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
(ii) Proof by Perfect Induction Method:

Truth Table 10 for L.H.S. X. ( X +Y) and for R.H.S. X.Y.

X Y X X +Y X ( X + Y) X.Y

0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra
11.9 De Morgan’s Theorems:

(i) X+Y=X.Y

(ii) X.Y=X+ Y
Proof: (i) By Perfect induction

(i)Truth Table 11 for L.H.S. X + Y and for R.H.S. X . Y

X Y X +Y
X Y X+Y X.Y
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
L.H.S. =R.H.S.

(ii)Truth Table 12 for L.H.S. X . Y and for R.H.S. X + Y

X Y X .Y
X Y X.Y X+Y
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Rules:
3rd and 7th called idempotent. These shows that Boolean algebra is
idempotent.
i.e. A+A=A and A. A = A
Proof:
The variable A can have only the value 0 or 1.
(3) If A =0, then 0+0=0
If A = 1, then 1+1=1
(7) If A = 0, then 0.0. = 0
If A =1, then 1 . 1 =1
Rule 2: X +1 =1
If X = 0 then 0+1=1
If X = 1, then 1 + 1 =1
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Rule 5: X.0=0
If X = 0, Then 0.0 = 1
X= 1, 1 .0 = 1
If = Then
Rule 9: X = X, i.e., the Boolean algebra is involuted.

If X =0, Then O = 1 and 1=0

=
So O=1=0
_ _
If X=1, Then 1 = 0 and O=1
= _
So 1=O=1
Similarly we can prove the remaining rules by setting the values of
variables as 0 and 1 or by perfect induction
Example:2: Express the Boolean function

XY + YZ + Y Z = XY + Z
Solution:

L.H.S. = XY + YZ + Y Z

= XY+Z(Y + Y )
= XY + Z.1
= XY + Z
L.H.S = R.H.S.
Example 3: Find the complement of the expression: X + YZ and
verified the result by perfect induction.
Solution:

X+ YZ = X . YZ

= X .( Y + Z ) by DeMorgan‟s Law
This relation can be verified by perfect induction.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Truth Table 13 for L.H.S. X+YZ and for R.H.S. X . ( Y + Z )

X Y Z YZ X+YZ
Y + Z_
X Y Z X+YZ X(Y+Z )

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Example 4: Find the complement of A B + C D , (b) AB +CD = 0

Solution:

(a) AB+ CD = (AB ) . ( C D )

= =
= (A + B ) . ( C + D )

(A+ B ) . ( C + D)
(b) AB +CD= 0
Taking complement on
both sides.

= AB + CD =O

= AB . CD =1

Example 5: (A + B) . (C+D)= 1
Simplify the Boolean
(i) (X +Y) ( X+ Y ) ( X +Z)
expressions:

(ii) XYZ + X Y Z + XY Z
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra
Solution:

(i) First simplify (X + Y ) ( X + Y )

(X + Y) (X + Y ) = XX + X Y + YX + Y Y

= X + X Y + YX +O, as XX =X

as Y Y = 0

= X + X( Y + Y), as Y + Y =1
= X + X . 1, as X .1 = X
=X+X
=X

Now (X + Y) (X + Y ) ( X +Z)

=X( X + Z)

=X X +XZ, by distributive
law

= 0 + XZ
= XZ
(ii) XYZ + X Y Z + XY Z

=XZ (Y + Y ) + XY Z

=XZ + XY Z , as Y + Y =1

=X (Z +Y Z )

= X[(Z +Y). (Z + Z )], (By Rule 15 dual of distributive

= X [(Z + Y). 1] = X (Z + Y)

=X (Y + Z), by commutative law.

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Math 123 Boolean Algebra
Example 6: Minimize the following expression by use of Boolean
rules.

(a) X = AB C + AB + AB C

(b) X = AB C + AB C + AB C + AB C

(c) AB + A C + B C = AB + A C

(d) (A + B) ( A + C) (B + C) =(A + B) ( A + C)
Solution:

(a) X =ABC + A B + AB C

= ABC + AB C + A B

= AB (C + C ) + A B

=AB + A B as C+C
=1
= (A + A ) B.
= 1. B
=B

(b) X = AB C + AB C + AB C +AB C

= AB C + AB C + AB C as A + A = A

= A B C +(A + A ) B C

= AB C + 1 . B C

=(AB+B )C

= [( A + B ) . ( B + B )] C by the dual of
distribution, rules 15

= ( A + B ) . 1] C

= ( A+ B ) C
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

(c) L.H.S. = AB + A C +
BC

= AB + A C + BC
= AB + A C + 1.BC as 1 = A+ A

= AB + A C + (A + A ) BC

= AB + A C +ABC + A BC , by distributive law

=AB +ABC + A C + A BC, by commutative law

= AB (1 + C) + A C (1 + B),

AS 1 + X = 1

=AB + A C
L.H.S. =R.H.S.

(d) L.H.S. = (A +B) ( A + C)( B + C)

=(A A + AC + B A + BC) ( B + C)

=(0 + AC +B A + BC) ( B +C)

=(AC + B A + BC ) (B + C)

=[AC + B( A + C)] (B + C)

=ABC + ACC + BB ( A + C) + BC ( A + C)

=ABC + AC + B ( A + C) + BC ( A + C)

= AC (B + 1) +B ( A + C) (1 + C)
= A A + AC + B ( A + C) as AA = 0
= AC + B( A + C)
= A( A + C) + B( A + C) or by rule 19.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

= (A + B) ( A + C)
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
10. Sum of Product (Minterm):
The Sum of Product means that the products of the variables
that are seperated by a plus sign. The variables can be complemented or
uncomplemented, for-example,

AB + A B + A B + A B + AB C + A B C + A B C
11. Product of sum (Maxterm):
The Product of Sum means that the sum of variables that are
seperated by a multiplication sign. For example,

(A + B) ( A + B) (A + B ) ( A + B ), (A +

B + C)(A + B + C )( A + B + C)
12. Fundamental Products:
The products that produce a high (1) output are
called
Fundamental products. For example, for the two input
variables A and B.

We have four possible combination‟s, which are shown in the table below
and the fundamental product‟s corresponding to each:

Truth Table 14 Two Variables

A B Fundamental Output Z
Table 14
Product
0 0 A B 1
0 1 AB 1
1 0 AB 1
1 1 AB 1
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

For three input variables or signals a similar idea is applied.

Whenever the input variable is 0, the same variable is complemented in
the fundamental product.
Truth Table 15. Three variables
A B C Output Fundamental Output for Sum terms Output for
Z Product product Sum
A+B+C
0 0 0 0 1 0
AB C
0 0 1 0 1 0
AB C A+B+ C
0 1 0 1 1 0
AB C A+ B +C
0 1 1 1 1 0
A BC A+ B + C
1 0 0 0 1 0
AB C A +B+C
1 0 1 0 1 0
AB C A +B+ C

1 1 0 1 1 0
AB C A + B +C

1 1 1 0 ABC 1 0
A+ B + C

Sum of product(SOP) = AB C + AB C+AB C

Product of sum(POS)= (A + B + C) (A + B + C ) ( A + B + C)

(A+B+C)(A+B+C )
Note: See remarks for sum of product and product of sums.
Remarks:
( 1) A sum of product (minterm) is obtained as follows: For
each row of the truth table for which the out put is 1, the
Boolean term is the product of variables that are equal to 1
and the complement of variable that are equal to 0. The
sum of these products is the desired Boolean equation.
(2 A product of sum expression is obtained as follows: each
) row of the truth table for which the output is 0, the Boolean
term is the sum of the variables that are equal 0 plus the
complement of the variables that are equal to 1. The
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra
product of these sum is the desired Boolean equation.
Example 7: Find the sum-of-products and product
of sums equations from the given truth Table - 16.
Table 16
A B C Output Functional Values
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Sum-of-Product Equation

X = A B C + A B C + A B C + AB C
Product-of-Sums Equation:

Y = (A + B + C)(A + B + C )( A + B + C )( A + B + C )
NOTE:The Boolean expression from the truth table is the sum of product
(minterms)terms for which the output is i.e.,

X = A B C + A B C + A B C + AB C
11.13 NAND and NOR gates:
DeMorgan‟s theorems form two new gates NAND and NOR gates.
These gates are the most popular and most widely used logic gates. Since
any logic circuit can be constructed using only NAND and NOR gates,
they are often referred to as the Universal building blocks.
NAND gates:
This NAND (or not AND) gate is an AND gate followed by a
NOT circuit: The operation of the NAND gate is described by one of

DeMorgan‟s Theorem, which states that A.B = A + B . The

NAND gate has two or more input signals but only one output signal. Any
input must be high to get a high output
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra
A A
A.B
A.B = A + B
B B A.B= A + B
N A N D G a e (a) Standard Symbol (b) Logical meaning of N A N D Gate

Fig. 6(a) (b)

NAND- Gate truth Table 17

Table 17
A B A.B.
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
NOR-Gate:
The NOR (or not OR) gate is an OR-gate followed by a NOT
circuit. The operation of the NOR-gate is described by DeMorgan‟s
theorem, which states that.

A+ B =A. B
The NOR gate has two or more input signals but only one output
signal. All inputs must be low to get a high output.
A. A
A+B
B. B
A+B =A. A+B =A.
B B
NAND Gate ( c) Standard (d) Logical meaning of NAND Gate
Symbol
Fig. 6(C)(d)
Table 18
A B A+ B A+B
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

NAND and NOR Gates in Two level Network

A

B A.B = A +B

(A.B) (C.D) = AB + CD)

C
C.D = C + B
D

Fig. 7 (i) NAND Gates in Two - Level

Networks
A
A +B
B
(A+B) (C + D)= (A + B)(C + D)
NOR+
C

D
C.
D
Fig. 7: NAND and NOR Gates in Two - Level Networks

Fig. 7
11.14 Combination of Gates:
The OR gate and AND gates and invertors can be interconnected to
form gatting or logic networks, in the switching theory, these are also
called combinational networks. The Boolean algebra expression
corresponding to a given Network can be driven by systematically
progressing from input to output on the gates.

A net work that forms (i) (X.Y) + ( X . Y )

and another net work that forms (ii) (X + Y). ( X + Y ) are shown as
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

(i)(i XX YY
)
ANDA X.
G Y XX+YY
OR

ANDA XY
G
Or,
X X.
Y Y
AND

OR
X.Y+X Y
X
AND X.Y
Y

(ii) X
Y OR

X+
Y (X+Y)
AN
(X+Y)
X D

Y OR
X+Y
Fig. 8

11.15 Boolean Expression and Logic Diagrams:

Boolean expressions are frequently written to describe mathematically
the behavior of a logic circuit. Using a truth table and the Boolean expression,
one can determine which combinations of input signals cause the output signal.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Example 8: Write the Boolean expression that describes

mathematically the behavior of logic circuit shown in
fig.10. Use a truth table to determine what input
conditions produce a logic 1 output.

A
B
X

C Fig.10
Solution:
A
A A. B

AB +C X = AB
+C
B
C Fig.11
Fig.11 Circuit showing solution for 98
example
Solution:
Truth Table 18 for the Circuit in Fig.11

A B C A AB A B +C
AB+C
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 0
Thus the input conditions those produce a logic 1 output are : 0 0 0 , 100, 110
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Example 9: Given the Boolean expression

X = AB + ABC + A B C + A C
(a) Draw the logic diagram for the expression.
(b) Minimize the expression.
(c) Draw the logic diagram for the reduced expression.
Solution: (a) The logic diagram is shown in the Fig. 12.

(b) X = AB + ABC + A B C + A C

= AB (1 +C) + A C ( B + 1)

= AB. 1 + A C .1 = AB + A C

= A(B + C )

(c)
A

X=A(B + C )
C
Fig.13 Minimize diagram for example 9.
 279
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

11.16 Karnaugh Maps:

Many engineers and technicians prefer to use Karnaugh Maps to
minimize the Boolean expressions instead of Boolean Algebra. This
section tells you how to construct. Here we use the Karnaugh maps to
minimize expressions containing up to four Variables.
A Karnaugh map is a graphical form of a truth table and consists
of a square or rectangular array of adjacent cells or blocks. The number of
cells in a particular map depends on the number of variables in the
Boolean expression to be minimized. The number of cells for a particular
map is determined from expression.
N = 2n
Where N = number of cells required for the Karnaugh map.
n = number of variables in the Boolean expression.
The configuration of the Karnaugh map for two, three and four
variable expression is shown in Fig. In the Karnaugh map, each variable
and its complement are assigned half of the cells in the map. The assigned
cells consists of adjacent rows or columns.

(a)Two-variables (b) Three (c) Four Variables

map variables map map

The sides of the map are labeled to show cell assignment as

shown for the two variables map in Fig. 16. The two left hand cell beneath

A are assigned to A and the two right hand cells or assigned

to A .
Moving horizontally, the top two cells are assigned to variable B
and the

bottom two cells are assigned to B . Each cell assigned a unique

address, which is specified by the row column in which the cell resides.
Fig. 17 shows which variable share each cell in fig. 16.
 280
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

A A
B
B AB
A B

B B A AB
Fig. 16

Fig. 17
The maps showing cell assignments for three and four variables
expression are shown in Fig.18. The sides of the maps may be labeled in
only convenient way. Two cells of a map are considered to be adjacent as
long as their respective addressed differed by no more than one variable.

For example, ABCD and ABC D are addresses of adjacent cells.

Diagonal cells are not
A
adjacent, even though they shore a common corner,
because their Baddresses differe by more than A B
A Bone variable. AB AB

B C CD

B C C D

BC CD

C D
B C
(a) (b)
Fig. 18
After learning how to draw a Karnaugh map, the next step is to
plot the given expression. The given expression must be in the sum-of-

products form. The expression A B C +ABC is the sum of two

products, or, two minterms, and is therefore in the correct form; however,
the expression (A+C) (B+C) is not in the correct form and cannot be
plotted in this form.
To plot an expression, we identify with a 1 each cell addressed by
a minterm (product term). After placing a l in cells addressed by each
minterm, adjacent cells containing all are enclosed either singularly, in
pairs, or in groups of 4, 8 or 16 (integral power of 2). We enclose
the largest number of adjacent cells containing a „l‟ as possible – as long
as the enclosed „l‟s equal 2 raised to an integral power. The enclosed, „l‟s
are collectively called a group or an implicant.
 281
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

The desired minimized Boolean expression is obtained from the

Karnaugh map by applying the following two steps:
1. All 1‟s must be included in at least one group. It is permissible,
and desirable, to enclosed a l more than once if it facilitates
enlarging another enclosure.
2. Each group represents a minterm. The sum of the minterms that
represent these groups is the minimized Boolean expression in
sum-of-products form corresponding to the given logic function.
The use of these rules is illustrated in the following example:-

Example 10: Plot the Boolean express X = AB + A B + BC

and minimize expression from the Map.
Solution:
Since the expression contains three variables, we need a
Karnaugh
map containing cells equal to
A A
N = 23 = 8 1
BC

BC 1
BC 1 1

BC 1
Fig.19
To plot the expression, we start by identifying all cells that are
common to AB by placing 1 in these cells. If we repeat this procedure for

the terms A B and B C and placing a l in cells common to the

minterms, we have plotted the function as shown in Fig. 19.
To minimized Boolean expression, all 1,s must be enclosed at least
once. Greatest minimization is achieved by enclosing the largest number
of adjacent l‟s possible, even if same have already enclosed.
In Fig. 19, the 1‟s making up the larger group are common only
to A,
and the 1‟s making up the smaller group are common to B and C;
therefore, the minimized expression is

X = A + BC
 282
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Algebraic Proof:
The sum-of-products equation corresponding to larger group is

Y = A B C + A B C +AB C + ABC

= A ( B C + B C + B C + BC)

= A{ B ( C + C) + B ( C + C)

= A( B + B)
=A

The sum-of-products equation corresponding to the smaller group is

Z = A BC + ABC

=( A + A) BC = BC
Example 11: Minimize the following Boolean expression by use of the
Karnaugh map.

X = B C + B D + AB + AD + AC + C D
Solution:
The number of cells are N = 24 = 16
To plot the expression, place 1 in the cells common to each term in
the expression: Fig: 20

A B AB AB AB

CD 1
1
CD
1
1
CD 1
1

CD 1
Fig.20
1 1 1 1
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

The minimized expressions is:

X = B C + AD + C D
NOTE: On four-variable maps, l‟s is cells on opposite sides of the map
may be enclosed since the map is continuous, like a cylinder, in
both the horizontal and vertical planes
Example 12: Minimize the following Boolean expression by use of
the Karnaugh map:-

X = A C D + A B C D + A B D+ A B CD
Solution:
A B AB AB A
Fig.21 shows the
Karnaugh map for the B
CD
expression.
The minimized expression is
CD 1
1
X=BD+C
CD 1 1 1 1
D

CD 1
1 1

Fig.21
11.17 Non-Unique Group:
Occasionally, we find a Karnaugh map for which more than one set
of groups exists. This situation is illustrated in Fig.19. One can readily see
that both maps yield Boolean expression with three two-variable
minterms. These equivalent expressions, described the same function;
however, they differ in the way in which variables are combined. Boolean
functions that can be described by two or more equivalent minimized
Boolean expressions are referred to as non-unique. On the other hand,
functions that described by a single minimized Boolean expressions are
referred as unique.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

When a non-unique Boolean function is to be implemented with

logic gates, it generally does not matter which of the possible minimized
expressions is implemented. However, occasionally one expression may be
preferred because certain variables or minterms are more accessible or
may be available from an existing circuit.

A A A A

B 1 B 1
C C
1
BC 1 BC 1
1
B B
1
C C
1
B 1 1 B 1 1
C C
(a)
Fig. 19: (b)
Boolean expressions from non-unique groups.
(a) X1 =AB + A C + B C , (b) X2 =A C + BC + A B
Example 12: Read out some of the possible Boolean expressions for
the Karnaugh map shown in Fig. 20.
A B AB AB A B

CD 1 1

CD 1 1

CD 1 1 1

1 1 1
C

Fig.20
D
Solution: Fig.20 shows several possible combinations of enclosure
and the resulting Boolean expression.
 285
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

A B AB AB AB
A B AB AB AB
AB AB AB A B 1 1
C CD 1 1
CD
D 1 1 C 1 1
CD 1 1
C D
D 1 1
C 1 1 1 1
CD 1 1
C 1 1 D
D 1 1 1 1 1 1
C CD 1 1 1
C 1 1 1 D
D (b) (c)
1
(a)

Fig.21 Various combinations of enclosures.

(a) X = B C + A C + B C + C D

(b) X = B C + B C + A B + C D
(c) X = B C + A C + B C + B D

18. Redundant Groups:

After you finish encircling groups, there is one more thing to do
before writing the simplified Boolean equation: eliminate any group
whose l‟s are completely over lapped by other groups. (A group whose 1‟s
are all overlapped by other groups is called redundant group).
19. Dont’ Care States:
Using the truth table, we, can list each combination of input
variables that should cause a high output to exist. For some Boolean
functions, the output corresponding to certain combinations of input
variables does not matter. This usually occurs because certain
combinations of input variables cannot exist. Also, there are times that we
do not really care what value a function may take on. In both instances we
call such a term a don't care state. Don‟t-care states, means, that we do not
care whether the entry in a karnaugh map corresponding to a certain
combination of variables is a 1 or a 0. We shall use the symbol X for don‟t
care states.
Don‟t-care states can be very important in the minimization
process. Since we can assign either a 1 or 0 to a don‟t-care
condition, we can choose which ever value will provide a larger
enclosure and therefore a simpler, more economical circuit.
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Example 13: A logic circuit is to be constructed that will implement

the Boolean expression:

X = A B C + A B C+ A B C
Plot this expression on a Karnaugh map and reduce the expression
A A A
if the term A B C is a don't care. A
Solution: BC
BC
BC BC

BC BC

BC BC

(a)
Fig.22 (a) Karnaugh map for given (b) (b)
Karnaugh
map, illustrating
expression the use of don‟t care
The expression corresponding to the map in Fig. 22 (b) is :
states.

X= A B + AC+ C

Therefore, assigning a value of 1 to the don‟t care State allowed us to

reduce the original expression significantly.
11.20 For the given truth table minimize the Boolean
expression using Karnaugh map.
Consider the truth table. The Fundamental products for these 1 out

put are A B C , AB C and ABC. Enter these 1‟s on the Karnaugh map.
A B C Output
A A
Y
0 0 0 0 BC 1
0 0 1 0
Karanaugh
0 1 0 1 BC map for the
0 1 1 0 TruthTable
1 0 0 0 BC 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
BC
1 1 1 1
Fig.2
3
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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

The sum-of-product form for the Boolean expression from the

truth table is

X = A B C + AB C + ABC
To minimize this Boolean expression from the Karnaugh map, we
find that

X=BC+A B

Exercise 11
Q.1: Prepare a truth table for the following Boolean expression:

(i) XYZ + X Y Z (ii) ABC + A B C + A B C

(iii) (A + D) (B + C) (iv) (A + B) (A +C)( A + B )

(v) AB + A B
Q.2: Simplifying the following with the help of Boolean algebra
Rules:

(i) AB +AC +ABC (ii) AB + A( B + C) + AB C

(iii) A BC + A B C + ABC + AB C + A B C

(iv) AB C + AB C + AB C + AB C
Q.3: Minimize the following expressions:

(a) X = W Z (W +Y) + WY( Z +W )

(b) X= (A+B) ( C )

(c) X=(A B C + B C )

(d) X = (A B C + ABC ) C
Q.4: Convert the following expression to sum-of-product form.
 288
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

(i) (A + B)( B + C) ( A + C)

(ii) (A + C) (A B +AC)( A B + C )
Q.5: Convert the following expression to product-of-sum form:

(i) A+ A B + A C (ii) (AB+ C )+A C B+ B

(iii) AB + ABC + A B C + A C (iv) AB+A B

Q.6: Express the given function in the product of sums, also draw
its circuit and truth table.

X = A B C + A B C + AB
Q.7: Draw a logic circuit using only NAND gates for which output
expression is X = A C + B C.
Q.8: Draw a logic circuit using only NOR gates for which the output

expression is X = A C + B C.
Q.9: Prove the following by use of a truth table:

A B A + A BC + A B C = A B + A C
Q.10: Draw the circuit diagrams of the following:

(i) F = X Y Z + XY Z + X Y Z

(ii) F = AB +(A B + A B)
Q.11: Use the Karnaugh map to minimize the following expressions.

(i) X = AB + A B + B C + A C

(ii) X = A C + B C + B C + AC

(iii) X = ABC + A BC + A B C + A B C
(iv) X = A B C + ABC + A B C + A B C + AB C +A B C+ A B C

(v) X = A.B + (A + B) ( A +C) + A( A + C)

Q.12: For the given truth tables, find out logical expressions using
Boolean algebra and and minimize these expressions by
Boolean Rules or Karnaugh map techniques:
 289
Math 123 Boolean Algebra
Truth Table 20 Truth Table 21
Output Output
(i) A B C (ii) A B C D
Y Y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0

Answers:11
Q.1(i)

X Y Z XYZ
X Y Z XYZ XYZ + X Y Z
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
(ii)

A B C ABC
A B C ABC ABC ABC + A B C + A B C

0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
 290
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

(iii)
A B C D A +D B+C (A + B)(B + C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

(iv)

A+
A B C A+B A+C
A
B B (A+B)(A+C)( A + B )
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

(v)

A B AB
A B A B AB+ A B
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Q.2: (i) A (B +C) (ii) A (iii) A + A ( B C +B)

(iv) B C +AC+AB

Q.3: (a) WZ (b) AB + C (C) BC (d) ( A + B )C

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Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Q.4: (i) BC + AC (ii) AB

Q.5: (i)

A B C
A A B A .C A+ A B + A C
0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 1

Hence product-of-sum is (A + B + C)

(ii) A +B +C (iii) A(B + C )

A B AB
A B A B AB + A B
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Hence Product of sums =(A + B ) ( A

+B)
Q.6:
A B C AB A B C+ A B C
A B C AB C AB C
+ AB
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
 292
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Hence Product-of-sums =(A +B + C ) (A + B + C) (A + B + C ) ( A + B +C)

A B C

B AB
C

A
B AB ABC + ABC
C C +AB

AB

Fig.Circuit

Q.7:
A
AC
C

(A C . B C) =AC+BC

C
BC
B
Q.7: Fig..

Q.8:

A A
C
AC

A A

Q.9: AC+B C
C C (A C . B C)

BC
C

Q.8: Fig..
 293
Math 123 Boolean Algebra
Truth Table
_
A B C A B C AB A C A BC AB+AC
AB C +
AB C A B A BC + A B C
C
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L.H.S. = R.H.S.

Q.10

X Y
Z

Y XY Z

XY
Z
XYZ + XYZ +XYZ
X
XY Z

(ii)
A

B A
B
A B+(AB+ AB)
A
B
B

A
A (AB+
B AB)

Q.10. Fig. (i) and

(ii)
Q.11.
A A
(i) A A
(ii)
(a) X =C + B +A
1 1 1
BC BC

BC 1 1 BC 1 1
BC 1 1 BC 1 1
BC 1 1 BC 1 1

(a) (b)
 294
Math 123 Boolean Algebra
(b) X=1

A A A A
(iii (iv
1 1
) B ) B
C C 1
1 1 1
B
C B
1 1 1
BC CB

B B
C 1 1
C C
(c (d
) )
(c) X =C (d) X =A + B + C

A A
(v
)
B 1 1
C
1
BC
1 1
BC
B 1
C
(e)
(a) X = A + B + C
Q.12: Boolean expressions by Truth
table are:
(i) X = A B C + ABC
 295
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

(ii) X = A B C D + A BC D + A BCD + ABC D

(i) (ii) A B AB AB A B
A A
CD
BC
CD
BC
CD 1
BC
1 1 1
BC CD

(a) (b)

(a) X = AB (b) X = A C D + A BC + BC D
Are the logical minimized expressions after applying Karnaugh map.
 296
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Short Questions
Q.1: Define Logic Gates.
Q.2: Define following gates and draw logic circuit diagram
(a) OR Gate (b) AND Gate
(c) NOT Gate (d) NAND Gate
(e) NOR Gate
Q.3: Prove by Boolean Algebra X + X Z– =
Q.4: Prove by Boolean Algebra rules
X X (X + Y) = X

Q.5: Prove by Boolean Algebra Rules X+XY=X+ Y

Prove that by Boolean Algebra Rules.
Q.6: AB +AC + ABC= AB+AC

Q.7:
XY + YZ–+ Y Z– = XY + Z–

Q.8: X ( X + Y) = XY
Q.9:
X + Y Z– = ( X +Y) ( X + Z– )
Q.10:
Construct a logic diagram for expression A. B + C
–– –– ––
Q.11: Construct a logic diagram for expression AB = A . B

Q.12: Construct a logic diagram for expression A. B + B.C

Q.13: Construct a logic diagram for expression B. (A +C)

Q.14: Find truth table of X + Y = Y + X

Q.15: Prepare a truth table of XY= YX

Q.16: Prepare a truth table X(X +Y) = X

Q.17: Prepare a truth table of X + X Z– = X

Q.18: Obtain logic expression for logic diagram

W
Z
 297
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Q.19: Obtain the logic expression for logic diagram.

B
Q.20: Obtain the logic expression for logic diagram.
x
z

Q.21: Obtain the logic expression for logic diagram.

Q.22: Obtain the logic expression for logic diagram.

C
Q.23: Obtain the logic expression for logic diagram.

A
D
B
 298
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Answers

Q10. A
A.B

B A.B+C

Q11.
A

B A+B = A-B

A
Q12. A.B

B
A.B + B.C

B.C
C

Q13. A+ C
A

B
B.(A+C)

C
 299
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Q14.
X Y X +Y Y +X

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 1

1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1

Q15.
X Y XY YX

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1

Q16.
X Y X +Y X(X+Y) X

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

Q17.
X X
Z– XZ– X+XZ–
0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0

1 0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 1
 300
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

Q18. X x+w=x.
w
W x.w+z

Z
Expression = x.w+z

Q19. A A .B = A + A+
B B
B

Expression = A + B = A .B
Q20.
x
xz
z xz +y
z

yz
y
Q21. Expression = x z + y z

x x
x+y
y
y

Expression = x+y
A AB
Q22.
AB+C
B
C D
CD

Q23.
D AB+C
D
A
A A
AB

AB+A
B B
B

AB+A
B
 301
Math 123 Boolean Algebra

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Q.1 Each questions has four possible answers. Choose the correct
answer and encircle it.

1. Boolean Algebra X + X Y is equal to:

(a) X (b) X (c) X + Y (d) X+Y

2. According to Boolean Algebra X + X is equal to:

(a) X (b) X (c) 0 (d)

3. 1 In Boolean Algebra X+ Y is equal to:

(a) X + Y (b) X . Y (C) X .Y (d) X+Y

4. If the switch is on it is represent by:
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) OR (d) NOT
5. If the switch is off it is represented by:
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) OR (d) NOT
X
6. x is used for:
Symbol
(a) NOT gate (13) NOR (c) OR(d) NAND
7. An AND gate performs logical multiplication on:
(a) Inputs (b) Outputs (c) OR gates (d) NOR gates
X
8. X + Y is the symbol for the logic:
Y
(a) OR gate (b) NOR gate (c) NAND gate (d) AND gate
9. X.( X + Y) equal to:

(a) X Y (b) X . X (c) X. X +X.Y (d) X + Y

10. X +XZ is equal to:
(a) Z (b) X (c) X + Z (d)

ANSWERS
1. c 2. d 3. b 4. b 5. b

6. a 7. a 8. a 9. a 10. b
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 302
Math 123 Boolean Algebra