FISIOLOGI

LEARNING &
MEMORY
Attaufi q irawan 15-022
Introduction
• A characteristic of animals and particularly of humans is the ability to alter
behavior on the basis of experience

• Learning is acquisition of the information that makes altering behavior on the

basis of experience, possible

• Memory
 the retention and storage of the information
 the storage and retrieval of information
 essential for learning and incorporating our experiences into behavior and
are part and parcel of our consciousness

• Learning and Memory are obviously closely related and should be considered
together.
Thought
• A thought results from a "pattern" of stimulation of many
parts of the nervous system at the same time, probably
involving most importantly the cerebral cortex,
thalamus, limbic system, and upper reticular formation
of the brain stem  the holistic theory of thoughts.
SHORT & LONG
TERM MEMORY
Sherwood Human Physiology
From Cells to Systems 9e 2016
Sherwood Human Physiology
From Cells to Systems 9e 2016
Working Memory
oThe neural change responsible for retention or storage of
knowledge is known as the memory trace or engram
oGenerally, concepts, not verbatim information, are stored.
oAs one reads a page, one is storing the concept
discussed, not the specific words.
oLater, when one retrieves the concept from memory,
she will convert it into her own words.
o It is possible, however, to memorize bits of information word
by word.
oTemporarily holds and interrelates various pieces of
information relevant to a current mental task
oThrough working memory, data are briefly held and
processed for immediate use
onewly acquired information and
orelated, previously stored knowledge that is transiently
brought forth into working memory
oto evaluate the incoming data in context
oThe major orchestrator of the complex reasoning skills
associated with working memory is the prefrontal
association cortex:

serves as a temporary storage site for holding relevant

data online

is largely responsible for the so-called executive functions

involving manipulation and integration of this information for
planning, juggling competing priorities, problem solving,
and organizing activities.
Reconsolidation
• Recent findings suggest that once an established memory is
actively recalled, it becomes labile (unstable or subject to
change) and must be reconsolidated into a re-stabilized,
inactive state.
• New information may be incorporated into the old memory
trace during reconsolidation.
• Thus, an old memory may actually be changed each time it is
recalled.
Two Forms of Long Term
Memory
• Explicit (declarative) memory is associated with
consciousness and is dependent on the hippocampus
and other parts of the medial temporal lobes of the
brain for its retention. It is for factual knowledge
about people, places, and things.
• Implicit (nondeclarative) memory does not
involve awareness, and it does not involve processing
in the hippocampus. It is important for training
reflexive motor or perceptual skills.
 episodic memory for events
 semantic memory for facts (eg, words,
rules, and language).
 initially required for activities such as
riding a bicycle can become implicit
once the task is thoroughly learned.
 Procedural memory includes skills and habits,
once acquired, become unconscious and
automatic.
 Priming is facilitation of recognition of words or
objects by prior exposure to them. An example is
improved recall of a word when presented with the
first few letters of it.
 Non-associative learning, the organism learns
about a single stimulus.
 Associative learning, the organism learns about
the relation of one stimulus to another.
Synaptic Plasticity
• Habituation and sensitization, in short-term memory,
result from modification of different channel proteins in
presynaptic terminals of specific afferent neurons involved in
the pathway that mediates the behavior being modified (in the
sea snail Aplysia)
• This modification, in turn, brings about changes in
neurotransmitter release.
• Habituation is a decreased responsiveness to repetitive
presentations of an indifferent stimulus—that is, one that
is neither rewarding nor punishing.
• Sensitization is increased responsiveness to mild
stimuli following a strong or noxious stimulus.
Long Term Potentiation
• LTP lasts for days or even weeks – long enough for this
short-term memory to be consolidated into more
permanent long-term memory
• LTP is especially prevalent in the hippocampus, a site
critical for converting short-term memories into long-
term memories.
• Enhanced synaptic transmission with LTP could result from
either changes in the postsynaptic neuron (increased
responsiveness to the neurotransmitter via insertion of
more receptors for this messenger in the postsynaptic
membrane) or in the presynaptic neuron (increased
release of neurotransmitter)
Long Term Depression (LTD)
 First noted in the hippocampus but was subsequently
shown to be present throughout the brain in the same
fibers as LTP

 LTD is the opposite of LTP

 Resembles LTP in many ways, but it is characterized by a

decrease in synaptic strength

 produced by slower stimulation of presynaptic

neurons and is associated with a smaller rise in
intracellular Ca2+ than occurs in LTP

 In the cerebellum, its occurrence appears to require the

phosphorylation of the GluR2 subunit of the α-amino-3-
hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4 propionic acid (AMPA)
Neurogenesis
• It is now established that the traditional view that brain cells
are not added after birth is wrong; new neurons form from
stem cells throughout life in at least two areas: the olfactory
bulb and the hippocampus.
• This is a process called neurogenesis.
• There is evidence implicating that experience-dependent
growth of new granule cells in the dentate gyrus of the
hippocampus may contribute to learning and memory.
• A reduction in the number of new neurons formed reduces at
least one form of hippocampal memory production.
ROLE OF SPECIFIC
PARTS OF BRAIN
Hippocampus
• The hippocampus is the most medial portion of the temporal
lobe cortex
• The hippocampus promotes storage of memories –
anterograde amnesia occurs after hippocampal lesions
are sustained
• The removing of two hippocampi
• does not seriously affect the person’s memory for
information stored in the brain before removal of the
hippocampi,
• seriously affects the capability (have no capability)
for storing verbal and symbolic types of memories
(declarative types of memory) in long-term memory, or even
in intermediate memory lasting longer than a few minutes.
• unable to establish new long-term memories of those
Alzheimer’s disease
oPeople with hippocampal damage are profoundly forgetful
of facts critical to daily functioning.
oDeclarative memories typically are the first to be lost.
oExtensive damage in the hippocampus is evident in
patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) characterized by
extracellular neuritic plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary
tangles, both of which are especially abundant in the
hippocampus.
oAcetylcholine-secreting neurons that terminate in the
hippocampus and cerebral cortex are particularly affected.
oNeuron death and loss of synaptic communication are
responsible for the ensuing dementia.
Retrograde Amnesia
• Inability to recall memories from the past
• In retrograde amnesia, the degree of amnesia for recent events
is likely to be much greater than for events of the distant past
• Damage in some thalamic areas may lead specifically to
retrograde amnesia without causing significant anterograde
amnesia.

• A possible explanation of this is that the thalamus may play a role

in helping the person “search” the memory storehouses and
thus “read out” the memories.
Cerebellum
• The cerebellum and relevant cortical regions
play an essential role in the “how to” procedural
memories involving motor skills gained through
repetitive training, such as memorizing a particular
dance routine.

• The cortical areas important for a given procedural

memory are the specific motor or sensory
systems engaged in performing the routine.
• For example, different groups of muscles are called
into play to tap dance than those needed to execute
TERIMAKASIH