Chapter 1.

The OSI Model

&
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1
Example 2.1
Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of
common ideas. However, Maria speaks only
Spanish, and Ann speaks only English. Since both
have learned the sign language in their
childhood, they enjoy meeting in a cafe a couple
of days per week and exchange their ideas using
signs. Occasionally, they also use a bilingual
dictionary. Communication is face to face and
Happens in one layer as shown in Figure 2.1.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 2

Figure 2.1 Example 2.1

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3

Example 2.2
Now assume that Ann has to move to another
town because of her job. Before she moves, the
two meet for the last time in the same cafe.
Although both are sad, Maria surprises Ann when
she opens a packet that contains two small
machines. The first machine can scan and
transform a letter in English to a secret code or
vice versa. The other machine can scan and
translate a letter in Spanish to the same secret
code or vice versa. Ann takes the first machine;
Maria keeps the second one. The two friends can
still communicate TCP/IP
using the secret code, 4as
Protocol Suite
Figure 2.2 Example 2.2

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 5

2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international
standards. Almost three-fourths of
countries in the world are represented in
the ISO. An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection
TCP/IP Protocol Suite (OSI)
6
Note

ISO is the organization;

OSI is the model.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 7

Figure 2.3 The OSI model

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 8

Figure 2.4 OSI layers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 9

Figure 2.5 An exchange using the OSI model

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 10

Note

The physical layer is responsible for

moving individual bits from one
(node) to the next.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 11

Figure 2.6 Summary of OSI Layers

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 12

2-3 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior
to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not match exactly with
those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as four software
layers built upon the hardware. Today,
however, TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer
model with the layers named similarly to the
ones in the OSI model. Figure 2.7 shows both
configurations. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 13
 Packet Encapsulation
 The data is sent down the protocol stack
 Each layer adds to the data by prepending headers

22Bytes20Bytes20Bytes 4Bytes
64 to 1500 Bytes
Figure 2.7 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 15

Figure 2.8 TCP/IP and OSI model

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 16

Figure 2.9 A private internet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17

 Figure 2.10 Communication at the physical layer

Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 18

Note

The unit of communication at the

physical layer is a bit.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 19

 Figure 2.11 Communication at the data link layer

Legend Source Destination D Data H Header

A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 20

Note

The unit of communication at the data

link layer is a frame.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 21

 Figure 2.12 Communication at the network layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 22

Note

The unit of communication at the

network layer is a datagram.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 23

 Figure 2.13 Communication at transport layer
A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 24

Note

The unit of communication at the

transport layer is a segment, user
datagram, or a packet, depending on the
specific protocol used in this layer.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 25
 Figure 2.14 Communication at application layer
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26
Note

The unit of communication at the

application layer is a message.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 27

2-4 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an
internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical address, logical address, port
address, and application-specific
address. Each address is related to a one
layer in the TCP/IP architecture, as
shown in Figure 2.15.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 28

Figure 2.15 Addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 29

Example 2.3
In Figure 2.16 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (a LAN). At the data link layer, this
frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header.
These are the only addresses needed. The rest of the
header contains other information needed at this level. As
the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver. The data link layer at the sender receives data
from an upper layer. It encapsulates the data in a frame.
The frame is propagated through the LAN. Each station
with a physical address other than 87 drops the frame
because the destination address in the frame does not
match its own physical address. The intended destination
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 30
computer, however, finds a match between the destination
 Figure 2.16 Example 2.3: physical addresses

packet packet
discarded discarded
1 packet
87 10 Data accepted
87 10 Data

2 3
4

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 31

Example 2.4
As we will see in Chapter 3, most local area
networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address
written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as
shown below: 07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 32

Example 2.5
Figure 2.17 shows a part of an Internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses.
Each router, however, is connected to three networks. So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection. Although it may be obvious that each router
must have a separate physical address for each connection,
it may not be obvious why it needs a logical address for
each connection. The computer with logical address A and
physical address 10 needs to send a packet to the
computer with logical address P and physical address 95.
We use letters to show the logical addresses and numbers
33
for physical addresses, TCP/IP
butProtocol
note Suite
that both are actually
Figure 2.17 Example 2.5: logical addresses

20 10 A P Data 20 10 A P Data 33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

95 66 A P Data 95 66 A P Data
33 99 A P Data

Physical
addresses
changed

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 34

Note

The physical addresses will change

from hop to hop, but the logical
addresses remain the same.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 35

Example 2.6
Figure 2.18 shows two computers communicating
via the Internet. The sending computer is running
three processes at this time with port addresses
a, b, and c. The receiving computer is running
two processes at this time with port addresses j
and k. Process a in the sending computer needs
to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although both computers are
using the same application, FTP, for example, the
port addresses are different because one is a
client program and the other is a server program.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 36
 Figure 2.18 Example 2.6: port numbers

A Sender Receiver P

Data Data
a j Data a j Data

A P a j Data A P a j Data

H2 A P a j Data H2 A P a j Data

Internet

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 37

Note

The physical addresses change from

hop to hop, but the logical and port
addresses usually remain the same.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 38

Example 2.7
A port address is a 16-bit address represented by
one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented as one single
number

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 39