IS414 Business Networks Technology

Routing Techniques
Week 7 Topic

IS414 Semester 1 2020 1

 Recap from last week
• Routing protocols
o BGP
o RIP
o IS-IS
o OSPF
o EIGRP
o ICMP
• Connection-oriented and connectionless switching
• Transport layer protocols – TCP and UDP

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Outline – Routing Techniques
1. Static routing
2. Dynamic routing
3. Static vs. dynamic routing,
4. Dynamic routing protocols
Routing information protocol (RIP) routing protocol
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol
5. Anatomy of a router

IS414 Semester 1 2020 3

 Routing basics
• We learnt:
o When packets arrive, router checks its forwarding table and
determines the interface to direct the packet
o Routing tables are configured by routing algorithms that exchange
and compute the information.
o Types of routing: central, static and dynamic (distance vector and
link state)
• Whether the network layer handles connection oriented or
connection-less service the purpose of routing is the same:
• Purpose of routing – to select good (best) paths from
senders to receivers through network of routers

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 Routing basics

• Default router – the router to Default router/gateway, DHCP

which a host is typically and DNS server

connected directly to (via switch)

 aka – first-hop router
• Packet is always sent to default
router when host sends a packet
• Source router – default router of
sending host
• Destination router – default
router of destination host

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 Static routing
• Lets review static routing:
o Routing decision making is decentralised based on a formal
routing protocol
o Routing decisions are made in a fixed manner by individual
routers
o Routing table developed by network manager and change
when computers are added or removed.
o Commonly used in networks that have few routing options
that seldom change
o Routes changes slowly over time – manual changing of
routes forwarding table

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 Configuring IP (Internet Protocol)

Rick Graziani
[email protected]
7
 Static routing - IP Configuration
• To communicate with other computers on
your network you need to properly
configure:
• IP Address (of your computer)
• Subnet Mask (of your computer)
• To communicate with computers outside
your network you need to properly
configure:
• Default Gateway IP Address
• To be able to use domain names, like
www.cabrillo.edu, instead of IP addresses
you need to properly configure:
• DNS (Domain Name System) Server IP
Address

8
 IP Configuration: IP Address & Mask
I am part of the 192.168.1.0
• To communicate with other computers on network!
your network you need to properly
configure:
• IP Address (of your computer)
• Subnet Mask (of your computer)
• IP – Internet Protocol
• IP Address is the unique address of your
computer on your network.
• Subnet Mask is used by your computer to
figure out what network it belongs to.
• Analogy:
• Name: RICKGRAZIANI
• Mask: FFFFLLLLLLLL
• The Mask tells us which part of
RICKGRAZIANI is the first name (F) and
which part is the last name (L).
Rick Graziani
[email protected]
9
 IP Configuration: Default Gateway
• To communicate with computers outside
your network you need to properly
configure:
• Default Gateway IP Address

Rick Graziani
[email protected]
10
 IP Configuration: Default Gateway
• Any information that needs to be sent to IP Addresses outside your network is
sent to the Default Gateway or Router.

192.168.1.10 To the Internet

192.168.1.1

Rick Graziani
[email protected]
11
 IP Configuration: DNS
• To be able to use domain names, like
www.cabrillo.edu, instead of IP
addresses you need to properly
configure:
• DNS (Domain Name System)
Server IP Address

207.62.87.54

Rick Graziani
[email protected]
12
 IP Configuration: DNS
• You could use IP Addresses when accessing other computers, but we would
rather use names (domain names).

Rick Graziani
[email protected]
13
IP Configuration: DNS
Hey, 207.62.87.54, what is the IP
Address for www.yahoo.com?

It is 66.94.230.47

Hey, 66.94.230.47,
please send me your
web page.
Yahoo
Web
Server
Here, 192.168.1.10,
here is my web page.

Rick Graziani
[email protected]
14
 Routing Protocols

• A routing protocol specifies how routers communicate with each

other, disseminating information that enables them to select routes
between any two nodes on a computer network.
• Routing algorithms determine the specific choice of route. Each
router has a priori knowledge only of networks attached to it directly.
 How Routing Protocols work?

Every network routing protocol performs three basic functions:

• discovery – identify other routers on the network
• route management – keep track of all the possible destinations (for
network messages) along with some data describing the pathway of
each
• path determination – make dynamic decisions for where to send each
network message
 Dynamic routing protocols

Interior Gateway Exterior Gateway

Protocol – Intra AS Protocol – Inter AS

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 Dynamic routing
• Routing decisions are made in decentralised manner by
individual routers.
• Used when its important to select the best route from
multiple routes in a network
• Improves network performance by routing messages over
fastest route, away from congested and heavily used routes
• Initial table developed by network manager and
continuously updated by routers themselves to reflect
changing network conditions
• 2 main categories: distance vector dynamic routing and link
state dynamic routing
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Static Routing Vs Dynamic Routing

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Basis for comparison Static Dynamic
Configuration Manual Automatic
Routing table building Manual entry of routing locations Locations are dynamically filled in the table
Routes User defined Routes are updated according to change in
topology.
Routing algorithms Doesn't employ complex routing algorithms. Uses complex routing algorithms to perform
routing operations.
Implemented in Small networks Large networks
Link failure Link failure obstructs the rerouting. Link failure doesn't affect the rerouting.
Security Provides high security. Less secure due to sending broadcasts and
multicasts.
Routing protocols No routing protocols are indulged in the Routing protocols such as RIP, EIGRP, etc are
process. involved in the routing process.
Additional resources Not required Needs additional resources to store the
information.

IS414 Semester 1 2020 20

 Distance vector dynamic routing

• Routers count number of hops

long a route e.g.
 R1 can reach a computer in
10.10.52.x in 1 hop
 R1 can reach computer in
10.10.43.x in 2 hops

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Distance Vector Dynamic Routing Protocol

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

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 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
• a dynamic distance vector interior routing protocol
commonly used in smaller networks, e.g. one
organization.
• new computers are added, RIP counts the number of
routers in the possible routes to the destination and
selects the route with the least number.
• Routers using RIP send broadcast messages every
minute or so (the timing is set by the network manager)
announcing their routing status to all other computers.
• RIP is used by both TCP/IP and IPX/SPX.

IS414 Semester 1 2020 23

Distance Vector (DV) protocol – Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

• Uses hop count as a cost metric

– each link has cost of 1
• In RIP, costs (‘hop”) are from
source router to and including,
destination subnet
• Maximum hop – 15
 RIP is
limited to AS with less than
15 hops in diameter
Number of hops from source router A to various subnets
• In DV protocols, neighbouring
routers exchange distance Table shows no. of hops from A to each leaf
vectors with each other subnets

IS414 Semester 1 2020 24

 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

• Distance vector for router A – is the

current estimate of the shortest
distance from router A to the
subnets in the AS
• Routing updates exchanged between
neighbouring routers every 30 secs –
RIP response messages or RIP
advertisements
• RIP advertisements sent by a router
contains up to 25 destination
subnets within the AS and the
senders distance to each of the
subnets.
IS414 Semester 1 2020 25
 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

• RIP advertisements
 Each router maintains a RIP table
known as a routing table.
 A router’s routing table – incl.
router’s distance vector and Lines connecting the routers denote subnets. Only
forwarding table. E.g. router D selected routers (A, B, C, and D) and subnets (w, x, y,
• Col 1 – destination subnet and z) are labeled. Dotted lines indicate that the AS
continues on
• Col 2 – next router along shortest Table D routing table
path
• Col 3 – no. of hops to dest. subnet
• E.g. to send from router D to
s/net w:
 2 hops, first forwarded to router A
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 RIP Advertisements and Changes to
Routing Table

Router D routing table before receiving advertisement

Advertisement from Router A

Router D routing table after receiving advertisement from router A

IS414 Semester 1 2020 27
 Link state Protocol

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

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 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• Successor to RIP – more advanced features
• A hybrid (DV and LS) protocol using:
o Flooding of link state information
o Dijkstra least-cost path algorithm
• uses the number of computers in a route as well as network
traffic and error rates to select the best route.
• doesn’t use broadcast messages but sends status update
messages directly to selected routers in its area at least
every 30 min.
• Link state information (advertisement) is broadcast every
state change or every 30 min
IS414 Semester 1 2020 29
 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• Advances:
o security: authentication of OSPF routers to ensure only
authorised routers only can participate.
o multiple-same-cost paths: allows multiple paths in the table if
they have same cost.
o multicast and unicast routing support: supports multicast routing
o Hierarchy within AS: areas of routers in an AS
• Areas have area border routers.
• Backbone area handles intra areas traffic.
• preferred interior routing protocol used by TCP/IP.

IS414 Semester 1 2020 30

 OSPF
Backbone area

Area border routers

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Anatomy of a Router

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Router architecture overview
two key router functions:
run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

forwarding tables computed, routing

pushed to input ports routing, management
processor
control plane (software)

forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer 4-33
 Input port functions

lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet • given datagram dest., lookup output port using
see chapter 5 forwarding table in input port memory (“match
plus action”)
• goal: complete input port processing at ‘line
speed’
• queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-34
Switching fabrics
transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate
output buffer
switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
 often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
 N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-35

Output ports

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
(send)
queueing

buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the
transmission rate
scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission

Network Layer 4-36

Input port queuing

fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing may

occur at input queues
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at front of
queue prevents others in queue from moving forward

switch switch
fabric fabric

output port contention: one packet time

only one red datagram can later: green
be transferred. packet
lower red packet is blocked experiences HOL
blocking
Network Layer 4-37
Output port queueing

switch
switch
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds output line

speed
queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer overflow!

Network Layer 4-38

 How much buffering?

• RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering equal to “typical” RTT (say
250 msec) times link capacity C
• e.g., if C = 10 Gpbs link: then buffer = 2.5 Gbit buffer
• recent recommendation: with N flows, buffering equal to

RTT . C
N

Network Layer 4-39

 Connecting to routers
• Routers are computers – but less monitor and disk,
keyboard, mouse
• 3 ways to connect to a router, configure and maintain it:
(1) console port, (2) network interface port, and (3)
auxiliary port
• When the router is turned on first time – no IP address,
so it cannot communicate on the network
• console port (management port) is used to configure
router using a blue rollover cable (not the Ethernet
cable) to connect the router’s console port to a
computer that has terminal emulation software on it.
 perform the basicsetup (e.g., IP address assignment, routing
protocol selection).
• Network manager can log in to the router from any
computer using the network interface using TCP/IP and
Telnet with Secure Shell (SSH).
• Although routers come with an auxiliary port that
allows an administrator to log via a direct, non network
connection (e.g., using modems), this connection is
rarely used today.
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 Reference
1. Fitzgerald, J et al, Business Data Communications
Networking, 13th edition, 2017, pg 130 – 134
2. Kurose FJ, Keith WR, Computer Networking – A top
down approach, Pearson, 6th edition, Pg 384 – 388,
2013

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 End

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