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William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
9th Edition
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Chapter 4
Cache Memory
Key Characteristics of
Computer Memory Systems
Table 4.1 Key Characteristics of Computer Memory Systems
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Characteristics of Memory
Systems
Location
Refers to whether memory is internal and external to the computer
Internal memory is often equated with main memory
Processor requires its own local memory, in the form of registers
Cache is another form of internal memory
External memory consists of peripheral storage devices that are
accessible to the processor via I/O controllers
Capacity
Memory is typically expressed in terms of bytes
Unit of transfer
For internal memory the unit of transfer is equal to the number of
electrical lines into and out of the memory module
Method of Accessing Units of
Data
Sequentia Direct Random Associativ
l access access access e
Each addressable
location in memory A word is retrieved
Memory is organized
Involves a shared has a unique, based on a portion of
into units of data
read-write mechanism physically wired-in its contents rather
called records
addressing than its address
mechanism
Each location has its
The time to access a
own addressing
Individual blocks or given location is
Access must be made mechanism and
records have a unique independent of the
in a specific linear retrieval time is
address based on sequence of prior
sequence constant independent
physical location accesses and is
of location or prior
constant
access patterns
Any location can be
Cache memories may
selected at random
Access time is variable Access time is variable employ associative
and directly addressed
access
and accessed
Main memory and
some cache systems
are random access
Capacity and Performance:
The two most important characteristics
of memory
Three performance parameters are
used:
Memory cycle time
Access time (latency) • Access time plus any additional
Transfer rate
• For random-access memory it is time required before second • The rate at which data can be
the time it takes to perform a access can commence transferred into or out of a
read or write operation • Additional time may be memory unit
• For non-random-access required for transients to die • For random-access memory it is
memory it is the time it takes out on signal lines or to equal to 1/(cycle time)
to position the read-write regenerate data if they are
mechanism at the desired read destructively
location • Concerned with the system
bus, not the processor
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The most common forms are:
Semiconductor memory
Magnetic surface memory
Optical
Magneto-optical
Several physical characteristics of data storage are important:
Volatile memory
Information decays naturally or is lost when electrical power is switched off
Nonvolatile memory
Once recorded, information remains without deterioration until deliberately changed
No electrical power is needed to retain information
Magnetic-surface memories
Are nonvolatile
Semiconductor memory
May be either volatile or nonvolatile
Nonerasable memory
Cannot be altered, except by destroying the storage unit
Semiconductor memory of this type is known as read-only memory (ROM)
For random-access memory the organization is a key design issue
Organization refers to the physical arrangement of bits to form words
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Memory Hierarchy
Design constraints on a computer’s memory can be
summed up by three questions:
How much, how fast, how expensive
There is a trade-off among capacity, access time, and
cost
Faster access time, greater cost per bit
Greater capacity, smaller cost per bit
Greater capacity, slower access time
The way out of the memory dilemma is not to rely on a
single memory component or technology, but to
employ a memory hierarchy
