Methods of Analysis

•  
Nodal analysis:
 Provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.
 Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the
circuit involves taking the following three steps.
1) Select a node as the reference(datum) node. Assign voltages , …, to the remaining
n-1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2) Apply KCL to each of the n-1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3) Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
 The reference node is commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have
zero potential.

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 Figure common symbols for indicating a reference node, (a) common ground,
(b) ground, (c) chassis ground.
  Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
I=
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
CASE 1 If a voltage source is connected between the reference
node and a nonreference node, we simply set the voltage at the non
reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage source. In the
figure below = 10 V.
CASE 2 If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is
connected between two nonreference nodes, the two nonreference
nodes form a generalized node or supernode; we apply both KCL
and KVL to determine the node voltages.
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 A supernode is formed by
enclosing a (dependent or
independent)
voltage source connected
between two nonreference nodes
and any elements connected in
parallel with it.
For this circuit:
+ = +. To apply Kirchhoff’s
voltage law to the supernode in
Fig.
-+ 5 + =0
- =5

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 Mesh Analysis
 Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits,
using mesh currents as the circuit variables. Using mesh currents instead
of element currents as circuit variables is convenient and reduces the
number of equations that must be solved simultaneously. Recall that a loop
is a closed path with no node passed more than once.
 A mesh is a loop that does not contain any other loop within it.

For example, paths abefa and bcdeb are meshes, but path abcdefa is not a
mesh. The current through a mesh is known as mesh current. In mesh analysis,
we are interested in applying KVL to find the mesh currents in a given circuit.

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•  
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents , ,… to the n meshes.
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages
in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
We apply KVL to each mesh. Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain:

 Note in the first equation that the coefficient of is the sum of the
resistances in the first mesh, while the coefficient of is the negative of the
resistance common to meshes 1 and 2.
The equation can be in
Matrix form:
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 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
•CASE
  1 When a current source exists only in one mesh: Consider
the circuit in Fig. for example. We set = -5 A and write a mesh equation for
the other mesh in the usual way; that is,

CASE 2 When a current source exists between two meshes: Consider

the circuit in Fig below for example. We create a supermesh by excluding the
current source and any elements connected in series with it.

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 Applying KVL to the supermesh in the second figure above:

 We apply KCL to a node in the branch where the two meshes intersect.
Applying KCL to node 0,

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 1.5 Circuit Theorems2w
1.5.1 Superposition Principle
• States that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a
linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone.
 To apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in
mind:
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent
sources are turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or
a short circuit), and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we
obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.

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Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the
output (voltage or current) due to that active source using the
techniques covered in previous lessons.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the
contributions due to the independent sources.
1.5.2 Thevenin’s Theorem
 states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series
with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.

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•CASE
In finding the Thevenin resistance, we need to consider two cases:
  1 If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent
sources. is the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b, as
shown in the figure below.

CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent
sources. As with superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they
are controlled by circuit variables.

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 The current through the load and the voltage across the load are easily
•  determined once the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the load’s
terminals is obtained.

1.5.3 Norton’s Theorem

 states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a
resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through the
terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
R =R
N Th

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 1.6 Maximum Power Transfer


• In
  many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide
power to a load. There are applications in areas such as
communications where it is desirable to maximize the power
delivered to a load.
 The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum
power a linear circuit can deliver to a load. We assume that we
can adjust the load resistance
 If the entire circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
except for the load, as shown in figure below the power
delivered to the load is

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
• For
  a given circuit, and are fixed. By varying the load
resistance the power delivered to the load varies as sketched
below. We now want to show that this maximum power occurs
when is equal to .

 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load

resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load
(R R ). To prove the maximum power transfer theorem, we
L= Th

differentiate p in the above equation with respect to and set

the result equal to zero. We obtain

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 This implies that

 The maximum power transferred is

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