Streamflow

Runoff, Discharge and hydrographs

  Runoff is defined as the part of the precipitation that
does not evapotranspirate
 Runoff reaches the stream from:
 Surface water flow (Direct Surface Runoff)
 Interflow
 Underground flow

Runoff  Direct Runoff: overland and interflow combined

  Type of precipitation
 Intensity of precipitation
 Duration and Rainfall
 Areal Distribution
Factors  Direction of storm movement
affecting  Soil Moisture

Runoff  Climatic conditions

 Land Use
 Soil Type
 Area of Catchment
  Shape of catchment
 Elevation of the catchment
 Solar radiation
 Drainage network
Factors
 Artificial and indirect drainage
affecting  Depressions
Runoff  Water Bodies
 Check dams
 Groundwater storage
 Rainfall Runoff Relation
R = runoff and P = precipitation
R =kP
k = 0.5 to 0.95
Rainfall can also be related through a regression analysis
Estimating   R = aP-b (site specific)
Runoff Empirical Formula
R = CPn
or

T = temperatura A = Area
 Infiltration Method: from infiltration capacity and φ-index
Runoff Curves and Tables
Curves showing the relation of runoff vs rainfall, the curves can be
used to obtain runoff from recorded rainfall measurements, or a
table showing a similar data

Estimating
Runoff
 Rational Method:
Most commonly used method for modeling and flood analysis
Q = CiA
i = rain intensity
A = area
Estimating C = runoff coefficient

Runoff Q= flowrate
Values of C are estimated based on land use/soil cover
Runoff Cycle
Runoff Cycle
Hydrographs
 Hydrographs
 Graphical representation of flow parameter vs time
 During and after a rain event, after initial loses and
infiltration occur excess rainfall flows into a stream
Intro  Effect of the storm on the stream is plotted vs time
 Q vs t = flood or flow hydrograph
 Velocity (v) vs time = velocity hydrograph
 Depth or stage (Y or H) vs t = stage hydrograph
Hydrograph of
Single or
Multiple
Storms
Components
of a
Hydrograph
Components
of a
Hydrograph
Components
of a
Hydrograph
 Climatic factors:
 storm direction
 Intensity
 Duration of rain
 Infiltration and Evapotranspiration

Factors
Affecting the
Shape of the
Hydrograph
 Physiographic Factors:
 Shape of basin
 Size of basin
 Slope
 Elevation
 Nature of the basin
Factors  Land use or cover
Affecting the 

Soil type and condition
Presence of lakes or other storage
Shape of the  Channel characteristics
Hydrograph
Factors
Affecting the
Shape of the
Hydrograph
  Base flow is the initial flow the stream before the rain event
 It is called sustained or dry weather flow and is assumed to be
constant
 We need to separate this flow from the rain event

Base Flow
Separation
  Straight Line Method

Base Flow
Separation
  Fixed Base Method: used with the unit hydrograph. States that
the time base for the storm should be relatively constant. The
curve is terminated after a number of days from the peak on the
hydrograph. Number of days (N ) =
N = 0.8A0.2 A = area in Km2

Base Flow
Separation
 Variable Slope Method:
 Two different ways:
a) draw a tangent line form the commencement of the surface
runoff meets the ordinate at the peak. Then draw a line
connecting the receding end of the curve
b) Draw a tangent line from the receding end towards the ordinate
at the peak and then draw a line to the commencement.
Base Flow
Separation
 To obtain DSR from a
hydrograph
1. Select a time interval
2. Separate base flow from
Obtaining peak flow
3. Get area under the curve
Direct Runoff  Can obtain this by adding
from a Flood the flows at each time
interval and multiplying
Hydrograph times the time interval
4. Divide by the area to get
DSR (= rainfall excess)
Example
  Derived from the idea that the base flow for a catchment
appears to be constant
 Defined as the hydrograph of surface runoff of a
catchment area resulting from an unit depth (1cm) of
rainfall excess occurring uniformly over the catchment at a
uniform rate for a specified duration
Unit  It is a linear model for the catchment used to determine
the DSR for 1 cm of runoff. This value is a constant.
Hydrograph  DSR can be calculated as multiples of the UH for rain
events
 Assumes:
 Rainfall is spatially uniform intensity throughout the whole
drainage basin
 Base time duration for the hydrograph is constant
 DSR Hydrographs of rain events of similar length are proportional
 UH reflects all of the conditions of the basin
 How to obtain an UH for a basin:
 Separate the base flow in a hydrograph
 Determine the volume of the DSR
 Obtain the depth of the DSR
 Divide the ordinate of the DSR by the depth of DSR to get the new
scale
Unit  Plot ordinates of UH vs time for the new graph
Hydrograph
Example
Example 2
Unit
Hydrograph
  Data from isolated storms are not always available
 Complex storms are successive storms in a catchment with
different rainfall excess
 An UH can be obtained from this data
 For rain events R = excess rain, Q = known ordinates (discharges),
UH from U are the ordinates of the UH
Qn= RnU1+Rn-1U2+Rn-1U3+…
Complex
Storms
Example
 We can create an unit hydrograph of different duration
from the one we have already
 Method of Superpositions: If required hydrograph is a
multiple of the existing hydrograph
 S-Curve: if required hydrograph has as duration smaller than
Unit the existing hydrograph
 Method of Super Positions:
Hydrograph of  Draw a UH of Duration D hrs (Curve 1)
Different  Draw the UH again but lagged by D (Curve 2)

Durations 
Add the two UH to form (Curve 3)
Divide Curve 3 by 2D to get Curve 4
Unit
Hydrograph of
Different
Durations
  S-Curve:
 A curve obtained by the summation of an infinite series of UH each
lagged by t hrs (A is area in Km2 and D duration in hrs)
Qe = (2.778 A/D) in m3/s

Unit
Hydrograph of
Different
Durations
Unit
Hydrograph of
Different
Durations
 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph:
developed when no data for to create a hydrograph are available
Required para meters: Base time (T), Peak Discharge (Qp), Lag Time
(tp)

Synthetic
Hydrographs

tp =Ct(LLca) 0.3

Ct = 1.8 to 2.2 when L is in miles or 1.35 to 1.65 when L is

in km
 T = 3 + tp/8 (days)
or
T = 72+ 3tp (hours)
Qp = 2.78 (cpA/tp)
cp = 0.56 to 0.69 for A in Km2
Synthetic Standard Duration
Hydrographs tr = D (hrs) = tp/5.5

For transforming the hydrograph

Example
Synthetic Unit
Hydrograph
  Triangular Unit Hydrograph:

Other
Hydrographs
 Non-Dimensional Hydrograph

Other
Hydrographs
  Clark Method for Synthetic Unit Hydrograph: takes
the unit hydrograph and transforms it into a zero
Other duration storm by applying a linear reservoir
Hydrographs  Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph: for short duration
and Methods storms
  Along with quantity of discharge it is important to know when
peak flow will arrive at the point of discharge
 Lag time: s the time from the midpoint of the excess rainfall to
the peak discharge
 Time of concentration is the time required for the farthest point
of the catchment to contribute to the Runoff
 One of the main assumptions of the rational method is that
Estimation of average rainfall intensity used has continued for a period long
  enough to establish direct runoff and that rainfall has continued
Time of Arrival long enough to equal or exceed tc.
 Kirpich Formula:

S = slope of the catchment L = length of the catchment in meters

 Federal Aviation Agency Formula:

C= runoff coefficient
D = length of overland flow in meters
Discharge
Measurements
  The study of flowing water (per second) measurement is called
hydrometry
 The study of peak discharge is of importance in design and
disaster prevention
 Measurements of discharge flow are used to develop:
Discharge 

hydrographs
Mass curves
Measurement  S-curves
 Flood warnings
 Water supply distribution
 Irrigation
 Seasonal runoff variation
Discharge Measurement
Methods
Current Meter
 Velocity is measured by determining the
number of revolutions taken by a conical
rotating cups or rotors
 The system is calibrated by the equation
 V = a +bN a, b are constants for the
aparatus, N is number of revolutions
 Measurements are taken at two depths
0.2D and 0.8D and averaged
 Area Velocity Method
 Based on the continuity equation
 Area measurements are the same as the current method but
velocity measurements are done by different methods including at
the surface using the float method

Discharge  Velocity profiles along the vertical and horizontal cross sections
are plotted
Measurement  Average V is calculated from the profiles
Methods
 Pitot Tube Measurement
 Named after Henri de Pitot
 Devised to measure the flow of the river Siene
 Uses the principal of stagnation, were kinetic energy is
transformed into pressure energy forcing water to rise in a tube to
Discharge a height h

Measurement
Methods
 Float Method
 A float is timed as it moves along a predefined length of a river
 This only measures surface velocity and needs to be adjusted for river
velocity

Discharge
Measurement
Methods

 According to Mysore Engineering research:

V=0.8529Vs +0.0085
 Slope Area Method
 Used for lengths of river that are straight, with constant sloping
 Cross sectional area for the river has to have been previously
measured during the dry season

Discharge
Measurement
Methods

 n is the manning coefficient for the surface

Discharge Measurement Methods
Rating Curve Method
 The water level (stage) in the river is much more easily
measured than the discharge.
 Runoff is therefore generally determined on the basis of
water level recordings in combination with a stage-
discharge relation curve, called a rating curve.
 A unique relationship between water level and river
discharge is usually obtained in a stretch of the river
where the river bed is stable and the flow is slow and
uniform
 Such a situation may also be created artificially in a
stretch of the river (e.g. with non-uniform flow) by
building a control structure (threshold) across the river
bed.
 Discharge Measurement
Methods
 The rating curve established at the gauging station has to
be updated regularly, because scour and sedimentation
of the river bed and river banks may change the stage
discharge relation, particularly after a flood
Q = a(H-Ho)b
H = water level of the river in meters
Ho = water level at zero flow
a and b are constants
 H is found by trial and error. a and b are found by least
squares fit
 The coefficient b in equation should have a value of 1.67
in a rectangular channel, a value of 1.69 in a trapezoidal
channel with 1:1 side slopes, a value of 2.16 in a parabolic
channel, and a value of 2.67 in a triangular channel
Rating Curve
Method
 Stage methods:
Manual gauges.
 Most common is the graduated staff gauge, installed vertically in
the stream.
 The gauge is read once or several times a day, depending on the
regime of the river.
Discharge  For small rivers with flashy floods a continuous measurement may
be necessary in order not to miss some of the peaks.
Measurements
 Recording Gauges:
 A float-actuated gauge, using a stilling well to
exclude wave action, is the traditional way of
continuous registration of the water level.
 The data can be collected by
 a pen and chart on a rotating drum
 Electronic data recorder and transmitter
Discharge  Flood warning systems can be created from sets of
Measurements floats that send data every 15 min.
 Pressure gauge or bubble gauge can be used
 Contraction Meter Method
 Contractions are weirs, dam spillways, culverts and sluices
 Weirs are used in irrigation canals and small rivers or
streams
 Dam spillways, culverts and sluices are not designed for
discharge measurement but may be used for such
Discharge
Measurements
Discharge
Measurement
 Obstruction Method
 Venturimeter, orifice meter and nozzle meter
 The principle is to cause a measurable change in the pressure head
of the system by changing the velocity of the flow, and apply the
Bernoulli equation

Discharge
Measurements
 Tracer Method
 The procedure involves the adding of a chemical solution or tracer
of known concentration to the flow and then measuring the
dilution at a point downstream where the tracer is completely
mixed with the river water.
 The tracer may be a chemical (e.g. sodium dichromat, sodium
Discharge chloride, etc.), a radio isotope (e.g. tritium) or a biological tracer
(e.g. a Serratia culture).
Measurement  The requirements for all types of tracers are:
 harmless to the environment
 (almost) absent in the natural stream
 not absorbed by sediments, flora or fauna
 to be detected by simple methods
 high solubility
 inexpensive
  For a river of flow Q and an original concentration of chemical Co,
Cs the concentration of chemical downstream and q the flow of
tracer and Ct the concentration of tracer being added
QCo + qCt = (Q+q)Cs

Discharge  
Measurement
 Other Methods or instruments used for Discharge measurement
include:
 Channel transition method: applies Parshall flumes
 Rotameter instrument
 Hydraulic Model Method: for large streams where stage or
velocity measurements are inconvenient or impossible. Uses data
from low flow time periods and extrapolates
Discharge  Echo sounder: for large rivers
Measurements  Ultrasonic flowmeter: measure the time a soundwave takes to
transfer between two transducers placed on the river banks
 Laser Doppler Anemometer: the difference in the intensity of a
laser beam is related to flow density
 Hot wire anemometer: difference in resistivity due to water
flowing a hot wire is measured
Flood Estimation
  To the engineer, extreme floods are often the critical situation for
design.
 Consequently, monitoring of the processes involved in the
occurrence of an extreme flood (rainfall, water levels, flows) is
important.
 However, extreme floods only occur once in a lifetime, and one is
seldom adequately prepared to monitor the event effectively.
Flood  Applying Murphy's law to the occurrence of extreme floods, one
Estimation could state that extreme floods occur:
 at night, when everybody is sound asleep;
 on public holidays when all offices are closed;
 after torrential rains when telephone lines are broken and radios do
not work as a result of
 static;
 when roads are blocked by flooding and culverts have been washed
out;
 when the car is being repaired, or without petrol;
 when the Director of Water Affairs is on holiday.
  Floods are defined as unusually high river stages which overtops
the natural or artificial river banks
 Floods may lead to loss of crops, property damage and cut lines of
communication
 Floods are natural events that result from excess runoff from
critical hydrological and meteorological conditions
 Extremely important for hydraulic design
Floods Methods of estimation include
 Envelope curves
 Empirical formulae
 Physical indication of past floods
 Rational method
 Probable maximum precipitation
 Rating curves
 Unit hydrographs
 Flood frequency analysis
 Envelope Curves
 Curves are created with information about past flood events
relating peak discharges and total volumes of flood to the basin
area
 These curves are limited by the data, as a new storm with a higher
flood event can always occur. They also do not give any statistical
info on return period or probability
Flood
Estimation
 Empirical Formulas:
 Most formulas rely only on the area of the catchment and some
constant that is specific to that catchment.
 The use of these is preferable only if no real flood history exists.
 Allow for a 33% increase from the estimated values

Flood
Estimation
Flood
Estimation
Flood
Estimation
Flood
Estimation
Flood
Estimation
 Physical indication of Past Floods
 River banks always show marks of past flooding
 Also can rely on word of mouth from community members

Flood  Once highest flood mark is attained the cross section for the river
valley can be plotted and the slope area method can be used to
Estimation estimate flood
 This method only gives a rough estimate
 River cross section is affected by debris and sedimentation
 Relies on Manning’s n which can change over time
 Rational Method (see Runoff)
Q =CiA
Based on uniform rainfall, producing constant runoff (rain fall duration
long enough to achieve this)

Flood
Estimation
If the time of concentration and rainfall intensity are known for a storm
period tr with maximum rainfall P

If time of concentration is not known then i is estimated from P/t r

 Limitations of the Rational Method

Flood
Estimation
 Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) Chart
 PMP is defined as the greatest or extreme rainfall
duration that is physically possible over a basin
 Another view is a rainfall that will produce a flood that
can never be exceeded
PMP =
Flood
Where P is average rainfall sigma is the standard deviation
Estimation  
of the data and K is a frequency factor that depends on
distribution of data and the number of years on record.
 K is usually close to 15
 Limitations:
 It overestimates flood and should only be used for large projects
(ex: dams)
 Orographic features affect estimation
 Assumes max air and soil moisture and constant wind
 Rating Curve Method (see stage measurements)
 Limitations:
 Backwater effects affect readings
 Change in aquatic vegetation and soil depth affect reading
 Changes in land use and slope affect readings
 The river may become inaccessible during high stage events,
affecting the actual readings
Flood Unit Hydrograph Method
Estimation  Consider the following required data:
 Infiltration index to get runoff
 Need to adjust for moisture content of catchment
 Select major storms
 Maximize the storm events by a few percentages
 Plot DAD curves for analysis
 Same limitations as UH apply
 Large basins may require to be divided by several UH
Flood Frequency
Analysis
  Considered the best method for flood estimation if data on past
floods is available
 Based on statistics and probability
 Flood occurrence are treated as statistical events and are
considered as discrete functions of random variables
Flood  Probability of Flood (P) : likelihood a flood is equal or exceeded
 Return Period (T): P = 1/T
Frequency
 N = number of data points
Analysis Plotting Positions:
 Probability or return period to assign to a peak based on a plot of
peak flow frequency
 Floods area arranged in decreasing order of magnitude
 There are many formulas and methods for this process
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
 Design Flood of any Frequency or Probability
 Simplest method, only works for short time periods at higher T
values not very reliable
 Obtained by drawing a best fit line for a plot of P vs Q or Q vs T

Flood
Frequency
Analysis
 Gumbel Analysis
 Floods should follow and extreme value distribution
 For flood annual extreme values Qn the exceedance probability P for a
return period T is given by:

y is called the reduced variate and is calculated from (for infinite set of
Flood data)
Frequency   y= a(Qt-Qf)

Analysis a= 1/0.78σ
σ is the standard deviation for N-1 data
Qf = - 0.45σ
Qt = +(0.78y - 0.45)σ
If data is only available for a limited time period and limited data
Qt = +Kσ K is obtained form a table
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
 Gumbel Example:
Estimate the 100 yr flood from the data given for Puthimari River K
for 100 yr is 3.653.

Flood
Frequency
Analysis
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
 Gumbel analysis for non Infinite data
 Since field data is usually incomplete and small sample size
 Slightly different set of equations is used

Flood
Frequency
Analysis
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
Flood
Frequency
Distribution
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
Flood
Frequency
Analysis
Storage of Reservoirs
Interpretation of
Streamflow data