Design of Hydroelectric Power

Plant
Major components of a hydro system
A hydro system is a series of interconnected
components: water flows in one end, and
electricity comes out the other, the section
provides a high-level overview of these
components, from the water source to
voltage and frequency controls.
Water Diversion (Intake)

The intake is typically the highest point of your hydro system, where water is diverted
from the stream into the pipeline that feeds your turbine. In many cases a small dam is
used to divert the water. (In most large hydro projects, the dam also creates the head
necessary to drive the turbine.)

A water diversion system serves two primary purposes.

The first is to provide a deep enough pool of water to create a smooth, air-free inlet
to your pipeline. (air reduces horsepower and can cause damage to your turbine).

The second is to remove dirt and debris. Screen can help stop larger debris such as
leaves and limbs, while an area of “quiet water” will allow dirt and other sediment to
settle to the bottom before entering your pipeline. This helps reduce abrasive wear on
your turbine.
Pipeline (Penstock)

The pipeline, is responsible for not only moving water to your turbine, but is also the
enclosure that creates head pressure with increasing vertical drop. In effect, the
pipeline focuses all the water power at the bottom of the pipe where your turbine will
connect. In contrast, an open stream dissipates the energy as it travels down the hill.
Pipeline diameter, length, and routing all affect efficiency, and there are guidelines for
matching the size of your pipeline to the design flow of your system. As you’ll see
later, a small-diameter pipeline can considerably reduce your available horsepower,
even though it can carry all available water. Larger diameter pipelines create less
friction as the water travels through.

Powerhouse

The powerhouse is simply a building that houses your turbine, generator and controls.
Proper design significantly affects system efficiency, however, especially with regard to
how the water enters and exits your turbine.
Turbine
The turbine is the heart of the hydro system, where water power is converted into the
rotational force that drives the generator. It is arguably the most important component
in the system, because its efficiency determines how much electricity is generated.
There are many different types of turbines, and proper selection requires considerable
expertise. A Pelton design, for example, works best with high head. A crossflow design
works better with low head but high flow. Likewise, other turbine types such as
Francis, Turgo and Kaplan, each have optimum applications.
Turbines fall into one of two major types:

• Reaction turbines run fully immersed in water, and are typically used in low-head
(pressure) systems with high flow. Examples include Francis, Propeller and Kaplan.

• Impulse turbines operate in air, driven by one or more high-velocity jets of water.
Impulse turbines are typically used with high-head systems and use nozzles to
produce the high-velocity jets. Examples include Pelton and Turgo.
A special case is the crossflow turbine. Although technically classified as an impulse
turbine because it is not entirely immersed in water, it is used in low-head, high-flow
systems. The water passes through a large, rectangular opening to drive the turbine
blades, in contrast to the small, high-pressure jets used for Pelton and Turgo turbines.
Turbine Efficiency
Regardless of the turbine type, efficiency is in the details, each turbine type can be
designed to meet vastly different requirements, and minor differences in specifications
can significantly impact power transfer efficiency.
The turbine system is designed around net head and design flow. Net head is the
pressure available to the turbine when water is flowing, and design flow is the
maximum amount of flow the hydro system is designed to accommodate. These
criteria not only influence which type of turbine to use, but are critical to the entire
turbine system.
Minor differences in specifications can significantly impact power transfer efficiency.
The diameter of the runner (the rating portion), front and back curvatures of its
buckets or blades, casting materials, nozzle, turbine housing, and quality of
components all have a major affect on efficiency and reliability.
The turbine runs most efficiently when it turns exactly fast enough to consume all the
energy of the water. In turn, the water must enter the turbine at a specific velocity to
maximize efficiency at this RPM. This velocity is determined by head pressure.
Optimizing water velocity
Since power is a combination of HEAD and FlOW, it’s easy to see how a larger orifice
that moves (Flow) at the same velocity could generate more electricity. Conversely, as
flow drops off in the dry season, the orifice must be made smaller to maintain the
same optimum velocity for efficient power transfer.
Keep in mind that turbine speed is not wholly dependent on water velocity; the
turbine will turn at a constant speed because it is directly coupled to the generator,
where a governor is maintaining stable RPM by controlling the load. But as the
disparity between actual and optimum water velocity grows, less of the energy from
the water is transferred to the turbine.
The correct orifice ensures the system is operating at its most efficient level.
Impulse turbines (such as a pelton) are often equipped with a variety of fixed-orifice
nozzles that can be used to accommodate changes in flow. A disadvantage of a fixed
nozzle is that the turbine must be shut down to make changes. A popular option is the
adjustable needle nozzle, which allows on the fly changes with an infinite number of
settings.
If you know your head and flow, your turbine supplier should be able to make specific
recommendations for a turbine system and provide a close estimation of efficiency.
Drive System
The drive system couples the turbine to the generator. At one end, it allows the turbine to spin
at its optimum RPM. At the other, it drives the generator at the RPM that produces correct
voltage and frequency.
The most efficient and reliable drive system is a direct, 1:1 coupling between the turbine and
generator. This is possible for many sites, but not for all head and flow combinations. In many
situations it is necessary to adjust the transfer ratio so that both turbine and generator run at
their optimum, but different, speeds.
These types of drive systems can use either
gears, or pulley and belts, all which introduce
additional efficiency losses into the system. belt
systems tend to be more popular because of
their lower cost. Your turbine manufacturer can
provide valuable guidance about matching
turbine and generator RPM, and suggest options
if a direct, 1:1 coupling is not possible.
Generator

The generator converts the rotational power from the turbine shaft into electrical power.
efficiency is important at this stage too, but most modern, well-built generators deliver good
efficiency.
There can be big differences in the type of power generated, however. DC generators can be
used with very small systems, but typically are augmented with batteries and inverters for
converting the power into AC power required by most appliances.
AC generators are normally used in all but the smallest systems. Common household units
generate 120VAC and 240VAC, which can be used directly for appliances, heaters, lights, etc. AC
voltage is also easily changed using transformers, which makes it relatively simple to drive other
types of devices or transmit over long distances. Depending on your power requirements, you
can choose either single-phase or three-phase AC generators in a variety of voltages.
One critical aspect of AC power is frequency, typically measured as cycles per second (cps) or
hertz (Hz). Most household appliances and motors run on either 50Hz or 60 Hz, as do the major
grids that interconnect large power generating stations. Frequency is determined by the
rotational speed of the generator shaft, faster rotation generates a higher frequency.
System control
- Governors and controls
Governors and other controls help ensure that the generator constantly spins at its correct
speed. The most common types of governors for small hydro systems accomplish this by
managing the load on the generator.
To illustrate, consider a hydro system without a governor. When you increase the load on the
generator by switching something on, it causes the generator to work harder. Without a
governor, it would slow down, lowering both voltage and frequency. Likewise, removing a load
by switching something off would cause the generator to speed up, raising voltage and
frequency.
With no load whatsoever, the generator would “freewheel”, and run at a very high RPM
(possibly causing damage). But by adding progressively higher loads, you would eventually slow
the generator until it reached the exact RPM for proper voltage and frequency. As long as you
maintain this “perfect” load, known as design load, power output will be correct. (Design load is
based on design flow. When flow drops off during dry periods, the load on your generator will
need to be reduced as well).
You might be able to maintain the correct load yourself by manually switching devices on and
off, but a governor can do a better job – automatically.
Electronic Load Governors
An electronic load governor works by automatically adjusting the load so the generator always turns at exactly the right
speed. In effect, it is always slowing the generator down just enough to produce correct voltage and frequency.
Electronic load governors constantly monitor voltage or frequency, adding or subtracting electrical loads as necessary to
compensate for human usage.
Load management systems

A load management system is an enhanced version of the electronic load governor, offering not
only the ability to regulate power usage, but also the option for you to choose and prioritize how
power is used. In addition to the ballast loads described above, it can directly control a wide
variety of devices via relays.

Small load adjustments work just like the electronic governor, the variable electronic switch
regulates power to the ballast loads. When there is enough excess power, however, the load
management system will control other devices in a certain priority.

For example, let’s assume you’ve connected two water heaters and a room heater to your load
management system. Excess power is directed first to the top priority load, your primary water
heater. If there is still excess power available, it will be directed to your next priority, the room
heater. If still more power is available, it will go to your backup water heater.