How to Write Papers

Rui PENG
[email protected]
 How to write introduction?
The purpose of an introduction is to prepare
the reader for the body of writing that comes
after it.
Inform readers what you are writing about and
why. Otherwise, they will feel lost and judge your
paper to be an unclear piece of work!
 How to write introduction?
A good introduction:
• indicates the topic that the paper is about
• describes how the body of the paper is
organized
• explains the point of writing the paper;
(usually called thesis statement).
 How to write introduction?
 Suppose you had to write a ten page paper
on the topic of whether body-checking
should be banned in junior ice-hockey.
 You did your research and found that there are
several main arguments for and against a
ban.
 After evaluation, you determined that the
arguments for a ban are stronger than
arguments against a ban.
 First example
Topic: This paper is about the issue of body-
checking in junior ice-hockey.
Organization: First, arguments for a ban on body-
checking are examined. Second, arguments
against a ban are discussed. It is shown that pro-
ban arguments are stronger than anti-ban
arguments.
Point: Therefore, the thesis of this paper is that
body-checking in junior ice-hockey should be
banned.
 Discussion on first example
 This introduction is all right so far as it goes.
It has included the three important elements:
topic, structure, point/thesis.
 Many people start out by writing papers with
introductions like this one.
 It does have the virtue of being clear,
and clarity is essential. But let us review it
to see if it can be improved.
 Discussion on first example
 The topic-sentence could be improved. Rather
than writing: “This paper is about…” , it
would be better to write a few topic-sentences
that convey a sense of the current state of the
topic.
 This not only tells the reader what the topic is
but it also gives the impression that you are
knowledgeable about the topic and in command
of your research material.
 Second example
Body-checking has always been a controversial
issue. However, the recent decision of Hockey
Canada to allow some hockey associations
to permit body-checking among players as
young as nine years of age, on an
experimental basis, has aggravated the
controversy quite considerably in recent
months.
 Discussion on first example
 The structure-sentences are fine.
Notice that words such as first and second
are useful in helping to describe how the
body of an paper is organized.

 However, if you can convey the structure of

your essay without using too many
organizational words, that is even better.
 Second example
Perspectives fall into three main categories:
viewpoints of fans, the official standpoint of
Hockey Canada, and positions held by the
scientific community. Evaluation of the
main arguments shows quite clearly that
Hockey Canada’s decision to allow body-
checking in some junior games, even on an
experimental basis, is a serious mistake.
 Discussion on first example
 The thesis-sentences could be better.
 Instead of writing: “Therefore, the thesis of
this essay is…” simply give a bold, factual
sentence that expresses your position on the
issue.
 This conveys an air of confidence, unlike the
phrase “…the thesis of this essay…” which is
timid.
 Discussion on second example
This second introduction gives the reader the
impression that you are knowledgeable on the
topic, and that doing the research has led you
to an intelligent, informed thesis. Why didn’t
the first introduction have the same effect?
 Discussion on second example
Words like paper, topic and thesis give the
impression that the concerns about and
position on the issue may not be your concerns
and position (only the paper’s!).

The second introduction gives the impression

that there is no gap between you and the
paper, and that you are expressing yourself
through the paper.
Practice!
Practice writing introductions without using
phrases such as “the topic of this essay…”
or “the thesis argued for is…” Expressing
the topic without using words like topic or
subject may be particularly challenging
because it is easy to include too much detail
and end up with an unintended body-
paragraph. But with practice, you will be
able to write more effective introductions.
 Some important issues
One common mistake is to write an
introduction that is too long; the introduction
is so detailed that it is indistinguishable from
the body of the essay!

As a rule, an introduction should not be longer

than about 8% of the length of the paper. For
example, the introduction of a ten, fifteen, and
twenty-page paper should be a maximum of
about a page, a page and a quarter, and one
and a half pages respectively.
 Some important issues
Another common mistake is that the
introduction is so detailed that it fails to
indicate the topic of the essay in a clear
way!

The introduction only needs to state

the topic, general structure, and thesis of the
essay. The longer the essay is supposed to
be, the more detailed your topic, structure
and thesis-sentences can be.
 Some important issues
The introduction must indicate the topic,
structure and thesis of the essay. If you are
not completely sure about any of these
things, you will find it hard or even
impossible to write an introduction.

Writer’s block can happen when you try to write

the introduction before you have done
sufficient reading and research on the topic.
 Some important issues
How can you know what the structure of
your essay will be until you have written at
least a draft of the body? How can you
know what your thesis will be until you have
done the reading and research?!

If you are not clear, write the introduction last.

 Some important issues
An introduction is not a summary.

A summary repeats the main ideas of a work.

An introduction introduces the reader to the

topic of the essay, describes the organizational
structure of the essay, and explains the point
of the essay.
 Literature review
A literature review is a description of the literature
relevant to a particular field or topic.
This is often written as part of a postgraduate
thesis proposal, or at the commencement of a thesis.
A critical literature review is a critical assessment of
the relevant literature.
 Literature review
‘Literature’ covers everything relevant that is
written on a topic: books, journal articles,
newspaper articles, historical records, government
reports, theses and dissertations, etc.
 Literature review
A literature review gives an overview of the field
of inquiry: what has already been said on the topic,
who the key writers are, what the prevailing theories
and hypotheses are, what questions are being asked,
and what methodologies and methods are
appropriate and useful.
A critical literature review shows how prevailing
ideas fit into your own thesis, and how your thesis
agrees or differs from them.
 Literature review
Generally speaking, a reasonable number of
references in a literature review would be:

Journal paper: 20+ titles

Conference paper: 10+titles
Masters thesis: 50+ titles
Doctoral thesis: 100+ titles.
 How to write literature review
1.The literature search
Use as many bibliographical sources as you can to
find relevant titles.
Bibliographies and references in key textbooks and
recent journal articles.
Abstracting databases, such as PsycINFO, Medline,
etc.
Citation databases, such as Web of Science, Scopus.
 How to write literature review
2. Reading the literature
Before you begin to read a book or article, make
sure you written down the full details.
Take notes as you read the literature. You are
reading to find out how each piece of writing
approaches the subject of your research, what it has
to say about it, and how it relates to your own
thesis:
 How to write literature review
Usually, you won’t have to read the whole text
from first to last page. You can think about the
following questions through reading.

Is it a general textbook or does it deal with a

specific issue(s)?
Is it an empirical report, a theoretical study, a
sociological or political account, a historical
overview, etc? All or some of these?
 How to write literature review
Does it follow a particular school of thought?
What is its theoretical basis?
What definitions does it use?
What is its general methodological approach? What
methods are used?
What kinds of data does it use to back up its
argument?
What conclusions does it come to?
 How to write literature review
3. Writing the review
Having gathered the relevant details about the
literature, you now need to write the review. The
kind of review you write, and the amount of detail,
will depend on the level of your studies.

do not confuse a literature review with an

annotated bibliography.
 How to write literature review
3. Writing the review
An annotated bibliography deals with each text in
turn, describing and evaluating the text, using one
paragraph for each text.
In contrast, a literature review synthesises many
texts in one paragraph. Each paragraph of the
literature review should classify and evaluate the
themes of the texts that are relevant to your thesis;
each paragraph or section of your review should
deal with a different aspect of the literature.
 Structure of a separate
literature review
Like all academic writing, a literature review must
have an introduction, body, and conclusion.

The introduction should include:
the nature of the topic under discussion (the topic of
your thesis)
the parameters of the topic (what does it include and
exclude)?
the basis for your selection of the literature
 Structure of a separate
literature review
The conclusion should include:

A summary of major agreements and disagreements

in the literature
A summary of general conclusions that are being
drawn.
A summary of where your thesis sits in the literature
 Structure of a separate
literature review
The body paragraphs could include relevant
paragraphs on:
historical background, including classic texts;
current mainstream versus alternative theoretical or
ideological viewpoints, including differing
theoretical assumptions, differing political outlooks,
and other conflicts;
possible approaches to the subject (empirical,
philosophical, historical, postmodernist, etc);
 Structure of a separate
literature review
definitions in use;
current research studies;
current discoveries about the topic;
principal questions that are being asked;
general conclusions that are being drawn;
methodologies and methods in use;
… and so on.
Thank You!