Flow Measurement: Industrial Instrumentation

FLOW MEASUREMENT
Industrial Instrumentation
Flow characteristics
Two types of flows, namely
• Laminar flows
• Turbulent flows.
Roughly speaking we can say that a laminar flow is a 'simple' flow

while a turbulent flow is a 'complicated' flow
• When a fluid is flowing through a closed channel such as a pipe or between two flat plates, either of two
types of flow (laminar flow or turbulent flow) may occur depending on the velocity, viscosity of the fluid
and the size of the pipe.
• Laminar flow tends to occur at lower velocities and high viscosity.
• Turbulent flow tends to occur at higher velocities and low viscosity.
Reynolds number
Flow meters
Head type
flowmeters
Positive displacement Mass flow

flowmeters meters
Flow
Variable area Velocity based

flowmeters flowmeters
Pressure based flowmeter/Head type flowmeters
Pressure based flowmeters
𝐹 𝑉 𝑉
𝐹= 𝜌 𝑉 𝑎 ⇒ = 𝜌 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑃= 𝜌 𝑎
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
∴ 𝑃=𝜌 𝑙 𝑎

𝑃= 𝜌𝑙 𝑎
• The pressure described by the equation is actually a differential pressure drop from one side of the fluid
mass to the other, with the length variable (l) describing the spacing between the differential pressure ports
• “Plug” of fluid can be accelerated by applying a difference of pressure across its length.
• The amount of pressure applied will be in direct proportion to the density of the fluid and its rate of
acceleration.
• Conversely, a fluid’s rate of acceleration can be measured by measuring the pressure developed across a
distance over which it accelerates.
• To cause linear acceleration in a moving fluid is to pass the fluid through a constriction in the pipe, thereby
increasing its velocity (remember that the definition of acceleration is a change in velocity).
• The following illustrations show several devices used to linearly accelerate moving fluids when placed in pipes,
with differential pressure transmitters connected to measure the pressure drop resulting from this acceleration.
• Another way to accelerate a fluid is to force it to turn a corner through a pipe fitting called an elbow.
• This will generate radial acceleration, causing a pressure difference between the outside and inside of the
elbow which may be measured by a differential pressure transmitter.
• Another way to cause a change in fluid velocity is to force it to decelerate by bringing a portion of it to a
full stop.
• The pressure generated by this deceleration (called the stagnation pressure) gives the original flow rate.
Venturimeter
Basic principle:
• When a venture meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be
measured, a pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venture meter.
• This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated
this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate.
Construction of Venturi meter:

• The entry of the venture is cylindrical in shape to match the size of the pipe through which
fluid flows.
• This enables the venture to be fitted to the pipe.
• After the entry, there is a converging conical section with an included angle of 19’ to 23’.
• Following the converging section, there is a cylindrical section with minimum area called
as the throat.
• After the throat, there is a diverging conical section with an included angle of 5’ to 15’.
• Openings are provided at the entry and throat (at sections 1 and 2 in the diagram) of the
venture meter for attaching a differential pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, differential
pressure gauge, etc.).
Operation of venturi meter:
• The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry section of the venturi meter
with a pressure P1.
• As the fluid from the entry section of venturi meter flows into the converging section,
its pressure keeps on reducing and attains a minimum value P2 when it enters the throat.
• That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2 will be minimum.
• The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat section of the
venturi meter records the pressure difference(P1-P2) which becomes an indication of
the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
• The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure and
hence its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of the diverging section, greater is the
recovery.
Dimensions of venturi
Bernoulli’s Equation
• Conservation of energy at different points in a fluid stream is expressed in Bernoulli’s Equation as
a constant sum of elevation, pressure, and velocity “heads”.
𝑣 21 𝜌 𝑣 22 𝜌
𝑧 1 𝜌 𝑔+ + 𝑃1 = 𝑧 2 𝜌 𝑔+ + 𝑃2
2 2
Where,
z = Height of fluid (from a common reference point, usually ground level)
ρ = Mass density of fluid
g = Acceleration of gravity
v = Velocity of fluid
P = Pressure of fluid
Mathematical relationship between pressure and flow rate
• Use Bernoulli’s equation to develop a precise mathematical relationship between pressure and flow rate in a venturi
tube.
• To simplify the task, the following assumptions for the venturi tube system are considered:
1. No energy lost or gained in the venturi tube (all energy is conserved).
2. No mass lost or gained in the venturi tube (all mass is conserved).
3. Fluid is incompressible.
4. Venturi tube centerline is level (no height changes to consider)
2
𝑣 1 𝜌 𝑣 22 𝜌 𝜌 2 2
+ 𝑃1= + 𝑃 2 ⇒ ( 𝑣 2 − 𝑣 1) = 𝑃 1 − 𝑃 2
2 2 2
2
𝐴2
𝐴1 𝑣 1= 𝐴 2 𝑣 2 ⇒
𝜌
2
2
( [(
𝑣2 −
𝐴1
𝑣2 ) ]) = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
1 𝑃1 − 𝑃2
𝑣 2 =√ 2
𝐴2
2 √ 𝜌
√ 1−
( )
𝐴1

Applications:
• It is used where high pressure recovery is required.
• Can be used for measuring flow rates of water, gases, suspended solids, slurries and dirty liquids.
• Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in a few meters.
Advantages of venturi meters:

• Coefficient of discharge is high.
• Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.
• Can be installed vertically, horizontally or inclined.
• They are more accurate and can be used for a wide range of flows.
• Around 90% of pressure drop can be recovered.
Limitations:
• They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they cannot be used.
• Expensive initial cost, installation and maintenance.
• Require long laying length. That is, the venture meter has to be proceeded by a straight pipe which is free
from fittings and misalignments to avoid turbulence in flow, for satisfactory operation. Therefore,
straightening vanes are a must.
• Cannot be used in pipes below 7.5cm diameter.
• Cannot be altered for measuring pressure beyond a maximum velocity.
Orifice meter

Operation:
• The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the orifice plate’s opening in its
upstream.
• When the fluid comes out of the orifice plate’s opening, its cross section is minimum and
uniform for a particular distance and then the cross section of the fluid starts diverging in the
down stream.
• At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the pressure of he
fluid (P1) is maximum.
• As the fluid starts converging, to enter the orifice opening its pressure drops.
• When the fluid comes out of the orifice opening, its pressure is minimum (p2) and this
minimum pressure remains constant in the minimum cross section area of fluid flow at the
downstream.
• This minimum cross sectional area of the fluid obtained at downstream from the orifice edge is
called VENA-CONTRACTA.
• The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure difference
(P1 – P2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid
through the pipe when calibrated.
• For linear measurement
Types of orifice plates
1. Concentric
2. Eccentric
3. Segmental
4. Quadrant
• Square-edged orifice plates may be
installed in either direction, since the
orifice plate “appears” exactly the same
from either direction of fluid approach.
• “paddle” of any orifice plate
customarily identifies the upstream side
of that plate, but in the case of the
square-edged orifice plate it does not
matter
• If the orifice plate is relatively thick
(1/8 or an inch or more), it may be
necessary to bevel the downstream
side of the hole to minimize contact
with the fluid stream.
• Beveled orifice plates are obviously
uni-directional, and must be installed
with the paddle text facing upstream.
• Orifice plates to address conditions where gas
bubbles or solid particles may be present in liquid
flows, or where liquid droplets or solid particles
may be present in gas flows.
• The hole is located off-center to allow the
undesired portions of the fluid to pass through the
orifice rather than build up on the upstream face.
• For gas flows, the hole should be offset
downward, so any liquid droplets or solid
particles may easily pass through.
• For liquid flows, the hole should be offset
upward to allow gas bubbles to pass through and
offset downward to allow heavy solids to pass
through.
• The segmental hole should be offset
downward in gas flow applications and
either upward or downward in liquid
flow applications depending on the
type of undesired material(s) in the
flow stream.
• An alternative to offsetting or re-
shaping the bore hole of an orifice
plate is to simply drill a small hole
near the edge of the plate.
• If such a hole is oriented upward to
pass vapor bubbles, it is called a vent
hole.
• If the hole is oriented downward to
pass liquid droplets or solids, it is
called a drain hole.
• Vent and drain holes are useful when
the concentration of these
undesirable substances is not
significant enough to warrant either
an eccentric or segmental orifice.
• Orifice plates employ non-square-
edged holes for the purpose of
improving performance at low
Reynolds number values, where the
effects of fluid viscosity are more
apparent.
• These orifice plate types employ
rounded- or conical-entrance holes
in an effort to minimize the effects
of fluid viscosity
• The conical-entrance orifice
plate looks like a bevelled
square-edge orifice plate
installed backwards, with flow
entering the conical side and
exiting the square-edged side
Different types of tappings
Orifice with flange tapping's
Flow nozzles
Flow nozzle
• A flow nozzle is similar to venturimeter instrument but without diverging cone.
• The jet contraction is less due to curved shape on upstream side unlike orifice plate.
• More resistant to erosion than the sharp edged orifice plate.
• Advantages of Flow Nozzle:

1. Has higher coefficient of discharge which is higher compare to orifice meter.
2. Used for measurement of flow of fluids which contains solids.
3. Used for measurement of higher temperature/pressure steam flow.
4. Used to measure high flow velocities.
• Disadvantages of Flow Nozzle:

1. It can not be used to measure flow containing higher percentage of solids.
2. It can not be used for low pressure heads as it has lower pressure recovery.
Pitot tubes
• Pitot tubes detect the flowing velocity at a single point (standard), at several points that lead into an averaging
probe (multiported), or at many points across the cross section of a pipe or duct (area-averaging).
• Their advantages are low cost, low permanent pressure loss.
• The disadvantages of pitot tube-type sensors are low accuracy, low rangeability, and the limitation of being
suitable only for clean liquid, gas, or vapor service unless purged.
• The impact pressure or stagnation pressure on a body, which
is immersed in a moving fluid is the sum of the static
pressure and the dynamic pressure.
• At a stagnation point the fluid velocity is zero and all the kinetic energy has been converted into pressure energy.
• An “Annubar” is an averaging pitot tube consolidating high and low pressure sensing ports in a single
probe assembly.
Target Flow meter
𝑐𝑑 𝜌 𝑣2 𝐴 𝑡
𝐹=
2
where

F = force on the target (N)
= overall drag coefficient obtained from
empirical data
ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
v = fluid velocity (m/s)
= target area (m2)
Proper installation
Variable Area flowmeters
Rotameter
Principle:
The pressure drop across the meter is constant and the area through which the fluid flows varies with flow rate.
Construction:
• Consists of a tapered glass tube mounted vertically in frame with the large end up.
• Tube contains a freely moving solid float / plummet.
• Dia. of the float is smaller than the dia. of the bottom portion of the tapered tube.
• Density of the float is higher than that of the liquid.
• Float is usually constructed out of corrosion resistance material like stainless steel, Aluminum, Monel,
bronze, nickel and plastics.
• The flow scale is marked in the glass tube or it is mounted close to the tube so that the position of float can
be marked and the flow rate is obtained.
Working:
• As the flow varies, the float rises or falls, thus altering the area of the annular space between float and the tube.
• The flow area is the annular opening between the float and the tube.
• When no fluid flows through the meter, rotameter float rests at the bottom of the tube.
• As the fluid begins to flow to the lower side of tube, float rises until its weight is balanced by the upthrust of
the fluid and fluid flows through the meter through annular space.
• As the flow rate ↑, the float rises in the tube moves upwards, thus ↑ the area of the opening keeping differential
pressure across it constant.
• As flow rate ↓, the float falls in the tube, thus ↓ the flow area with constant pressure drop across it.
• At a given rate, float stabilizes at certain fixed position in the tube and at steady state it is recorded as
rotameter reading on the scale.
• Variation of flow area with flow rate can be measured in terms of change in float position.
Application:
• Used in chemical industry for measurement of flow rate of compressible as well as incompressible fluids.
Velocity-based flowmeters
• The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density (ρ), cross-sectional pipe area (A)
and average velocity (v) must remain constant through any continuous length of pipe.
• Fluid velocity will be directly proportional to volumetric flow rate given a known cross-sectional area
and a constant density for the fluid flow stream.
Magnetic flowmeters
• Faraday’s law states that, if a conductor of length l (m) is moving with a velocity v (m/sec) perpendicular to
a magnetic field of flux density B (Tesla), a voltage e will be induced across the ends of the conductor.
• The direction of liquid flow cuts perpendicularly through the
lines of magnetic flux, generating a voltage along an axis
perpendicular to both. Metal electrodes opposite each other
in the pipe wall intercept this voltage, making it readable to
an electronic circuit.
𝑒=𝐵𝑙𝑣

where

= motional EMF (V)
B = magnetic flux density (Tesla)
l = length of conductor passing through the
magnetic field (m)
v = velocity of conductor (m/s)
𝑄
𝑄= 𝐴 𝑣´ ⇒ = ´𝑣
𝐴
𝐵𝑑 ´𝑣 ⇒ 𝑒= 𝐵𝑑 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑒= 𝐵𝑑𝑄 𝑒= 𝐵𝑑𝑄 4 𝐵𝑄
𝑒= ⇒ ⇒ 𝑒=
𝐴 𝐴 𝜋 𝑑2 𝜋𝑑
4
𝑄 = 𝜋 𝑑𝑒
⇒
4𝐵
𝜋 𝑑𝑒
∴𝑄=𝑘
4𝐵
where

Q = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
= Motional EMF (V)
B = magnetic flux density (Tesla)
d = diameter of flow tube (m)
k = constant of proportionality
• A few conditions must be met for this formula to successfully infer volumetric flow rate from
induced voltage:
1. The liquid must be a reasonably good conductor of electricity (note: it is okay if the
conducting fluid contains some non-conducting solids; the conductive fluid surrounding
the non-conducting solid matter still provides electrical continuity between the
electrodes necessary for induction).
2. The pipe must be completely filled with liquid to ensure contact with both probes as
well as to ensure flow across the entire cross-section of the pipe.
3. The flow tube must be properly grounded to avoid errors caused by stray electric
currents in the liquid.
Advantages of Electro-Magnetic flow meters
1. Fairly tolerant of swirl and other large-scale turbulent fluid behavior, because the induced voltage is
proportional only to the perpendicular velocity of the conductor.
2. Magnetic flowmeters do not require the long straight-runs of pipe upstream and downstream that orifice plates
do, which is a great advantage.
3. The magnetic flowmeter is totally obstruction less and has no moving parts.
4. Electric power requirements can be low, particularly with the pulsed DC-types. Electric power requirements as
low as 15 or 20 W.
5. The meters are suitable for most acids, bases, waters, and aqueous solutions, because the lining materials
selected are not only good electrical insulators but also are corrosion resistant.
6. Mag-meters are capable of handling extremely low flows. Their minimum size is less than 0.125 in. (3.175
mm) inside diameter. The meters are also suitable for very high-volume flow rates with sizes as large as 10 ft
(3.04m) offered.
7. The meters can be used as bidirectional meters.
Limitations
1. The meters work only with conductive fluids. Pure substances, hydrocarbons, and gases cannot be
measured. Most acids, bases, water, and aqueous solutions can be measured.
2. The conventional meters are relatively heavy, especially in larger sizes. Ceramic and probe-type units are
lighter.
3. Electrical installation care is essential.
4. The price of magnetic flowmeters ranges from moderate to expensive.
Ultrasonic flow meter
• Ultrasonic flowmeters measure

fluid velocity by passing high-
frequency sound waves along the
fluid flow path.
• Fluid motion influences the
propagation of these sound waves,
which may then be measured to
infer fluid velocity
Ultra sound generation
• Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flowmeters exist: Doppler and transit-time. Both types of
ultrasonic flowmeter work by transmitting a high-frequency sound wave into the fluid stream
(the incident pulse) and analyzing the received pulse.
• According to the Doppler effect, the change in wavelength of the reflected pulse is a function of the
targeted object's relative velocity.
• As the vehicle approaches the listener, the pitch of the horn

seems higher than normal; when the vehicle passes the
listener and begins to move away, the horn’s pitch appears to
suddenly “shift down” to a lower frequency.
• In reality, the horn’s frequency never changes, but the

velocity of the approaching vehicle relative to the stationary
listener acts to “compress” the sonic vibrations in the air.
• When the vehicle moves away, the sound waves are
“stretched” from the perspective of the listener.
Ultrasonic flowmeter: transit type
Where,
𝑡 𝑢𝑝 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 Q = Calculated volumetric flow rate
𝑄= 𝑘 k = Constant of proportionality
𝑡 𝑢𝑝 × 𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 tup = Time for sound pulse to travel from downstream location to upstream
location (upstream, against the flow)
tdown = Time for sound pulse to travel from upstream location to downstream
location (downstream, with the flow)
Ultrasonic flowmeter: Doppler based
• A Doppler flowmeter bounces sound

waves off of bubbles or particulate
material in the flow stream, measuring the
frequency shift and inferring fluid velocity
from the magnitude of that shift.
• If the reflected wave returns from a bubble
advancing toward the ultrasonic
transducer, the reflected frequency will be
greater than the incident frequency.
• If the flow reverses direction and the
reflected wave returns from a bubble
traveling away from the transducer, the
reflected frequency will be less than the
incident frequency.

Where,

= Doppler frequency shift
v = velocity of fluid (actually, of the particle reflecting the sound wave)
f = frequency of incident sound wave
= angle between transducer and pipe centerlines
c = speed of sound in the process fluid
• Doppler ultrasonic flow measurement is that the calibration of the flowmeter varies with the speed of
sound through the fluid (c).
• As c increases, Δf must proportionately decrease for any fixed volumetric flow rate Q.
• Since the flowmeter is designed to directly interpret flow rate in terms of Δf, an increase in c causing a
decrease in Δf, will thus register as a decrease in Q.
• The speed of sound through any fluid is a function of that medium’s density and bulk modulus (how easily
it compresses):
Where,
c = speed of sound in a material (m/s)
B = Bulk modulus (Pa or N/m2)
ρ = mass density of fluid (kg/m3)
• Temperature affects liquid density, and composition (the chemical constituency of the liquid) affects
bulk modulus.
Advantages:
1. They offer no obstruction to the flow.
2. Their output is insensitive to variations in viscosity, density and temperature.
3. There are no moving parts.
4. There is a linear relationship between output and input.
5. They can be used for bidirectional flow.
6. They have an excellent dynamic response.
Disadvantage:
• Main disadvantage is its complexity and relative high cost.
Vortex flowmeter
• When an obstruction is placed in the path of a flowing stream, the fluid is unable to remain attached to the
object on its downstream sides and will alternately separate (shed) from one side and then the other.
• When a fluid moves with high Reynolds number past a stationary object (a “bluff body”), there is a tendency
for the fluid to form vortices on either side of the object.
• Von Kármán also noticed that the distance between the shed vortices is constant, regardless of flow velocity.
• Strouhal determined that, as long as the Reynolds number of the flowing stream is between 20,000 and
7,000,000, the ratio between the shedder width and the vortex interval is 0.17. This number is called the
Strouhal number.
• As long as the obstruction is not eroded or coated, as long as the pipe Reynolds number is high enough to
produce vortices, and as long as the detector is sensitive enough to detect these vortices ,the result is a
flowmeter that is sensitive to flow velocity and insensitive to the nature of the flowing media (liquid, gas,
steam), the density, the viscosity, the temperature, the pressure, and any other properties.
Detection of vortices
Optical flowmeter
• Laser-Two-Focus (L2F) uses two laser beams to

detect the passage of any light-scattering particles
carried along by the moving fluid.
• As a particle passes through each laser beam, it
redirects the light away from its normal straight-
line path in such a way that an optical sensor (one
per beam) detects up the scattered light and
generates a pulse signal.
• As that same particle passes through the second
beam, the scattered light excites a second optical
sensor to generate a corresponding pulse signal.
• The time delay between two successive pulses is
inversely proportional to the velocity of that
particle.

where v = velocity of particle
d = distance separating laser beams
t = time difference between sensor pulses
Variable Head Meter Variable Area Meter
1. The area of constriction / area of flow The pressure drop is constant and the
is constant and pressure drop varies area of flow / area of constriction
with the flow rate. varies with the flow rate.
2. Eg: Orifice meter, venture meter Eg: Rotameter
3. Simple in construction. Complicated in construction.
4. Relatively cheaper. Relatively costly.
Mass flowmeters
Hot Wire Anemometer/ Thermal flowmeters
• Thermal flowmeters can be divided into the following two categories:
1. Flowmeters that measure the rise in temperature of the fluid after a known amount of heat has been
added to it. They can be called heat transfer flowmeters.
2. Flowmeters that measure the effect of the flowing fluid on a hot body. These instruments are
sometimes called hot-wire probes or heated-thermopile flowmeters
• Both types of flowmeters can be used to measure flow rates in terms of mass, which is a very desirable
measurement, especially on gas service
Heat Transfer Flowmeters or Thermal flowmeters
Immersion Heater Externally-heated Tube
• Heat is added to the fluid stream with an electric immersion heater.
• The power to the heater equals the heat transferred to the fluid (Q) and is measured using a wattmeter.
• T1 and T2 are thermocouples or resistance thermometers.
• Since we know the fluid, we also know the value of its specific heat.
• Thus, by measuring Q, T1, and T2, the flow rate (W) can be calculated.
• T1 and T2 do not have to be separately detected; they can be connected to each other so that the temperature
difference (T1− T2) is measured directly.
𝑊= 𝑄
𝑄=𝑊
𝑐 𝑝 ( 𝑇 2 −𝑇 1 ) ⇒
𝑐 𝑝(𝑇 2− 𝑇1)
Where
Q = heat transferred (BTU/h or Cal/h)
W = mass flow rate of fluid (lbm/h or kgm/h)
cp = sp. heat of fluid (BTU/lbm °F or cal/kgm °C)
T1 = temp. of the fluid before heat is transferred to it
T2 = temp. of the fluid after heat has been transferred to it
Hot wire probes or Hot wire Anemometer
• When an electrically heated wire is placed in a flowing gas stream, heat is transferred from the wire to the gas
and hence the temperature of the wire reduces, and due to this, the resistance of the wire also changes.
• This change in resistance of the wire becomes a measure of flow rate.
Operation of Hot wire Anemometer

• There are two methods of measuring
flow rate using a anemometer bridge
combination namely:
1. Constant current method
2. Constant temperature method
Constant temperature anemometer
• A current is initially passed through the wire.

• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place
from the sensing wire to the flowing gas and
this tends to change the temperature and
hence the resistance of the wire.
• The principle in this method is to maintain
the temperature and resistance of the sensing
wire at a constant level. Therefore, the current
through the sensing wire is increased to bring
the sensing wire to have its initial resistance
and temperature.
• The electrical current required in bringing
back the resistance and hence the temperature
of the wire to its initial condition becomes a
measure of flow rate of the gas when
calibrated.
Constant current anemometer
• A constant current is passed through the

sensing wire. That is, the voltage across
the bridge circuit is kept constant, that is,
not varied.
• Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes
place from the sensing wire to the
flowing gas and hence the temperature of
the sensing wire reduces causing a
change in the resistance of the sensing
wire. (this change in resistance becomes
a measure of flow rate).
• Due to this, the galvanometer which was
initially at zero position deflects and this
deflection of the galvanometer becomes
a measure of flow rate of the gas when
calibrated
Relationship between bridge output voltage and velocity of fluid
Coriolis force
Coriolis force
Coriolis Flowmeter
• Coriolis flowmeter works by shaking one or more tubes carrying the flowing fluid, then precisely
measuring the frequency and phase of that shaking.
• The back-and-forth shaking is driven by an electromagnetic coil, powered by an electronic amplifier circuit
to shake the tube(s) at their mechanical resonant frequency.
• Since this frequency depends on the mass of each tube, and the mass of the tubes depends on the density of
the fluid filling the fixed volume of the tubes, the resonant frequency becomes an inverse indication of
fluid density.
1
𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ∝
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
1
⇒𝑓 ∝
𝜌
• As fluid begins to move through the tubes, the inertia of the moving fluid adds another dimension to the tubes’
motion: the tubes begin to undulate, twisting slightly instead of just shaking back and forth.
• This twisting motion is directly proportional to the mass flow rate, and is internally measured by comparing the
phase shift (θ) between motion at one point on the tube versus another point on the tube: the greater the
undulation, the greater the phase shift between these two points’ vibrations.
Positive displacement meters
• Positive-displacement meters measure by internally passing isolated volumes of fluid that successively fill and
empty compartments with a fixed quantity of fluid.
• The filling-and emptying process is controlled by suitable valving and is translated into rotary motion to
operate a calibrated register or index that indicates the total volume of fluid passed through the meter.
• A positive displacement flowmeter is a cyclic mechanism built to pass a fixed volume of fluid through with
every cycle.
• Every cycle of the meter’s mechanism displaces a precisely defined (“positive”) quantity of fluid, so that a
count of the number of mechanism cycles yields a precise quantity for the total fluid volume passed through
the flowmeter
• Applicable only to clean fluid flow streams
• Positive displacement flowmeters are also very linear, since mechanism cycles are directly proportional to
fluid volume.
Rotating lobe meter
Radiation type mass flow meters
• Two separate sensors—one to measure the volumetric flow and the other to detect the density of the flowing
stream—and then to use the two transmitter signals as inputs into a mass flow computing module.
• Units are composed of a either a Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter or a magnetic flowmeter and a gamma-
radiation-based densitometer.
Radioactive emissions
Gamma Rays detector
Angular Momentum-type Mass Flowmeters
• Newton’s second law of angular motion states that
𝑌 =𝐼 𝛼 𝐻=𝐼
𝜔 𝐼 =𝑚 𝑟 2
2
⇒ 2 𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 , 𝛼 = 𝜔
⇒
𝑌 =𝑚 𝑟 𝛼 𝐻 =𝑚 𝑟 𝜔 𝑡
Y = 𝑚 𝑟2 𝜔 ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑌 𝐻 𝑚 2
⇒ ⇒ = 𝑟 𝜔
𝑡 𝑡 2
𝑟 𝜔 𝑡 𝑡
H = angular momentum (lbf-ft-sec)
I = momentum of inertia (lbf-ft2)
= angular velocity (rad/sec)
• The mass flow of fluid can be determined if an angular momentum is
= angular acceleration (rad/sec2)
introduced into the fluid stream and measurements are made of the
Y = torque (ft-lbf)
torque produced by this angular momentum and of the fluid’s angular
r = radius of gyration (ft)
velocity.
m = mass (slugs)
t = time (sec)
Impeller-Turbine Flowmeter
• The impeller-turbine-type mass flowmeter uses

two rotating elements in the fluid stream, an
impeller and a turbine .
• Both elements contain channels through which
the fluid flows.
• The impeller is driven at a constant speed by a
synchronous motor through a magnetic coupling
and imparts an angular velocity to the fluid as it
flows through the meter.
• The turbine located downstream of the impeller
removes all angular momentum from the fluid
and thus receives a torque proportional to the
angular momentum.
• This turbine is restrained by a spring that deflects
through an angle that is proportional to the torque
exerted upon it by the fluid, thus giving a
measure of mass flow.
Constant Torque-Hysteresis Clutch
• Another angular-momentum type mass flowmeter eliminates the necessity of making a torque
measurement after imparting a constant torque to the fluid stream. The relationship between mass flow
and torque is
𝑚 𝑌
=
𝑡 2
𝑟 𝜔
𝑚 𝑘
=
𝑡 𝜔
Twin-Turbine Flowmeter
• In this instrument, two turbines are mounted on a common
shaft .
• They are connected with a calibrated torsion member.
• A reluctance-type pickup coil is mounted over each turbine,
and a strong magnet is located in each turbine within the
twin-turbine assembly.
• Each turbine is designed with a different blade angle;
therefore, there is a tendency for the turbines to turn at
different angular velocities.
• However, because the motion of the turbines is restricted by
the coupling torsion member, the entire assembly rotates in
unison at some average velocity, and an angular phase shift
is developed between the two turbines. This angle is a direct
function of the angular momentum of the fluid
• As each turbine magnet passes its own pickup coil, the coil generates a pulse.
• The pulse from the upstream turbine is used to open a so-called electronic gate, while the pulse from the
downstream turbine closes this gate. An oscillator is placed in the electronic circuit, and the oscillations are counted
while the gate is opened.
• The number of oscillations is thus a function of the angle between the two turbines.
Multiphase fluid flow measurement
• Multiphase flow consist of the simultaneous passage in a system of a stream composed o two or more phases.
• Examples
1. The flow of blood in the human body.
2. Bubbles rising in a glass of soda.
3. Steam condensation on window
• Two phase flows
1. Gas-solid flows
2. Liquid-Liquid flows
3. Liquid -Solid flows
4. Gas –Liquid flows
• Three phase flows

1. Gas-Liquid-solid
2. Gas-Liquid-liquid
3. Solid-Liquid-liquid
Flow patterns
• The behavior and the shape of the interface between phases in a multiphase mixture is referred as the flow
regime or the Flow pattern.
• There are competing forces or mechanisms occurring within the multiphase fluid at the same time.
• The balance between these forces determines the flow pattern.
• The several factors that dictate the flow pattern are:
1. Phase properties, velocities, fractions
2. Operating pressure and temperature
3. Conduit diameter, shape, inclination and roughness
4. Presence of any upstream or downstream pipe work(bends, valves)
Gas –liquid flow: Horizontal view
• Superficial velocity (or superficial flow velocity), in engineering of multiphase flows and flows in
porous media, is a hypothetical (artificial) flow velocity calculated as if the given phase or fluid were
the only one flowing or present in a given cross sectional area
• There are seven horizontal flow patterns:
 • Stratified • Stratified wavy • Plug • Slug • Bubble • Annular • Mist
• Stratified and stratified wavy flow patterns occur at fairly low liquid and gas velocities.
• As the gas velocity increases, or if the pipe inclines, then the interface becomes wavy.
• Plug and slug are intermittent flow patterns as they have alternating regions of high and low liquid hold-
up.
• As the liquid flow rate increases, the liquid becomes the dominant phase and the flow changes from plug
into slug.
• Then there are the distributed flow patterns, bubble, annular and mist. Bubble flow occurs at high liquid
velocities where the gas bubbles are suspended in the liquid phase.
• Annular flow occurs at high gas velocities where the gas flow along the central core of the pipe and the
liquid forms a film on the pipe wall.
• When the gas flow increases it will start to pick up the liquid from the pipe wall and incorporate it into
the gas flow: this is called mist flow.
• There are five vertical multiphase flow patterns:
 • Bubble • Finely dispersed bubble • Slug • Churn • Annular
Flow pattern: Gas-liquid flows vertical view
• Superficial velocity (or superficial flow velocity), in engineering of multiphase flows and flows in porous
media, is a hypothetical (artificial) flow velocity calculated as if the given phase or fluid were the only one
flowing or present in a given cross sectional area.
Applications of MFM(multiphase flow meter) in oil and gas industry
Conventional process
Desired qualities of Multiphase metering
• Repeatability and accuracy of the measurement.

• Applicability to a wide range of flow rates phase fractions, fluids properties and operating pressure and
temperature conditions.
• Ease of installation and intervention
• Low capital expenditure and operation costs
• High mean time before failure
Multiphase flow metering principles
• The objective of multiphase flow metering(MFM) is to determine the flow rates of the individual
components.
• The number of instruments depends upon whether or not the three components can be mixed together
upstream of the instrumentation.
Homogenous flow
1. The fluids are uniformly mixed and moving as a pseudo fluid at the mixture velocity.
2. The slip velocity between the phases is negligible which implies that both the fluids are moving at an
average velocity.
3. Attainment of thermodynamics equilibrium between the phases.
• If the homogeneity of flow can be achieved, number of measurements can be reduced.
• There are five basic parameters that can be measured by MFM devices:
1. Density(gamma ray absorption)
2. Velocity(turbine flow meter)
3. Momentum (venture and orifice meters)
4. Mass flow(Coriolis flowmeter)
5. Elemental analysis
• The 4 Routes:
1. Homogenization + Sampling : 2 Homogeneous flow measurements + 1 sample measurement.
2. Homogenization without Sampling: : 2 Homogeneous flow measurements + 1 phase measurement.
3. Non – homogeneous Flow: 4 individual phase measurements + 1 bulk flow measurement.
4. Separation: 3 individual stream measurements.
Key factors for the selection of multiphase flow metering
• Confidence in particular technique.

• Health, safety and environment issues.
• Gas void fraction - the fraction of the flow-channel volume that is occupied by the gas phase .
• Operating envelope.
• Tool dimensions.
• Calibration over field life.
• Costs
• Assistance from manufacturers.
• Meter orientation and location.

Flow Measurement: Industrial Instrumentation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flow Measurement: Industrial Instrumentation

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flow Measurement: Industrial Instrumentation

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are the two types of fluid flows?

What are the two types of fluid flows?

What factors affect whether flow is laminar or turbulent?

What factors affect whether flow is laminar or turbulent?

FLOW MEASUREMENT

Roughly speaking we can say that a laminar flow is a 'simple' flow

Positive displacement Mass flow

Variable area Velocity based

Construction of Venturi meter:

Advantages of venturi meters:

Orifice with flange tapping's

• Advantages of Flow Nozzle:

• Disadvantages of Flow Nozzle:

• Ultrasonic flowmeters measure

• As the vehicle approaches the listener, the pitch of the horn

• In reality, the horn’s frequency never changes, but the

• A Doppler flowmeter bounces sound

• Laser-Two-Focus (L2F) uses two laser beams to

Immersion Heater Externally-heated Tube

Operation of Hot wire Anemometer

• A current is initially passed through the wire.

• A constant current is passed through the

Rotating lobe meter

• The impeller-turbine-type mass flowmeter uses

• Two phase flows

• Three phase flows

• Repeatability and accuracy of the measurement.

• If the homogeneity of flow can be achieved, number of measurements can be reduced.

• Confidence in particular technique.

You might also like