Socio-technical systems

Objectives
• Know what is meant by socio-technical system and
understand the difference between a technical computer-
based system and a socio-technical system
• Have been introduced to the concept of emergent system
properties such as reliability, performance, safety and
security
• Understand the activities that are involved in the systems
engineering process
• Understand why the organizational context of a system
affects its design and use
• Know what is meant by a ‘legacy system’, and why these
systems are often critical to the operation of many business

Socio-technical Systems 2
 Preamble
• What is a system?
– A purposeful collection of inter-related components that
work together to achieve some objective.
– A system may include software, mechanical, electrical and
electronic hardware and be operated by people.
– System components are dependent on other
system components
– The properties and behavior of system components are
inextricably inter-mingled

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 Preamble
• System categories
– Technical computer-based systems
• Systems that include hardware and software but where the
operators and operational processes are not normally considered
to be part of the system. The system is not self-aware.
– Socio-technical systems
• Systems that include technical systems but also operational
processes and people who use and interact with the technical
system. Socio-technical systems are governed by organizational
policies and rules.

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 Preamble
• Socio-technical system characteristics
– Emergent properties
• Properties of the system of a whole that depend on the system
components and their relationships.
– Non-deterministic
• They do not always produce the same output when presented
with the same input because the system’s behavior is partially
dependent on human operators.
– Complex relationships with organizational objectives
• The extent to which the system supports organizational objectives
does not just depend on the system itself.

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 Contents
2.1 Emergent system properties
2.2 System engineering
2.3 Organizations, people and computer systems
2.4 Legacy systems
2.5 Exercises

Socio-technical Systems 6
 2.1 Emergent system properties
• Properties of the system as a whole rather than
properties that can be derived from the properties of
components of a system
– a consequence of the relationships between system
components
– only be assessed and measured once the components
have been integrated into a system

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 Examples of emergent properties
• Volume
– Total space occupied
• Reliability
– Depends on component reliability
– Unexpected interactions cause new failure
• Security
– Ability to resist attack
• Reparability
– How easy to fix a problem
• Usability
– How easy to use the system

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 Types of emergent properties
• Functional emergent properties
– All the parts of a system work together to achieve some
objective
• a bicycle has the functional property of being a transportation
device once it has been assembled from its components.
• Non-functional emergent properties
– Relate to the behavior of the system in its operational
environment
• Reliability, performance, safety, and security
– Critical for computer-based systems
• Failure to achieve some minimal defined level in these properties
may make the system unusable.

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 Complexity of emergent properties

• Consider the property of system reliability

– Because of component inter-dependencies,
faults can be propagated through the system.
– System failures often occur because of
unforeseen inter-relationships between
components.
– It is probably impossible to anticipate all
possible component relationships.
– Software reliability measures may give a false
picture of the system reliability.

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 Influences on reliability
• Hardware reliability
– What is the probability of a hardware component failing
and how long does it take to repair that component?
• Software reliability
– How likely is it that a software component will produce an
incorrect output.
– Software failure is usually distinct from hardware failure in
that software does not wear out.
• Operator reliability
– How likely is it that the operator of a system will make an
error?

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 Reliability relationships
• Hardware failure can generate spurious signals that
are outside the range of inputs expected by the
software.
• Software errors can cause alarms to be activated
which cause operator stress and lead to operator
errors.
• The environment in which a system is installed can
affect its reliability.

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 The ‘shall-not’ properties
• Properties such as performance and reliability can be
measured.
• However, some properties are properties that the
system should not exhibit
– Safety - the system should not behave in an unsafe way;
– Security - the system should not permit unauthorised use.
• Measuring or assessing these properties is very hard
– Knowing a system is insecure only when someone breaks
into it

Socio-technical Systems 13
 Contents
2.1 Emergent system properties
2.2 System engineering
2.3 Organizations, people and computer systems
2.4 Legacy systems
2.5 Exercises

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 System engineering
• The activity of specifying, designing, implementing,
validating, deploying and maintaining socio-technical
systems
• Concerned with
– Software
– Hardware
– System’s interactions with users and its environment

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 The systems engineering process

Requirements System
definition decommissioning

System System
design evolution

Sub-system System
development installation

System
integration

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 Important distinctions
• Limited scope for rework during system
development
– Little scope for iteration between phases because
hardware changes are very expensive
• Interdisciplinary involvement
– Inevitably involve engineers from different disciplines who
must work together
– Different engineers use different terminology and
conventions

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Inter-disciplinary involvement

Software Electronic Mechanical

engineering engineering engineering

Structural ATC systems User interface

engineering engineering design

Civil Electrical
Architecture
engineering engineering

Socio-technical Systems 18
 2.2.1 System requirements definition

• Specify
– What the system should do (its functions)
– Essential and desirable system properties
• Involve consultations with system customers/end-users

• Derive three types of requirement

– Abstract functional requirements
• Basic functions at an abstract level
– System properties
• Non-functional emergent system properties
– Characteristics that the system must no exhibit
• Must not do vs. should do
– e.g. Too much information should not be presented to the controller

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 2.2.1 System requirements definition

• To establish a set of overall objectives that the

system should meet
– Functional objectives
• To provide a fire and intruder alarm system for the building which
will provide internal and external warning of fire or unauthorized
intrusion.
– Organizational objectives
• To ensure that the normal functioning of work carried out in the
building is not seriously disrupted by events such as fire and
unauthorized intrusion.

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 2.2.1 System requirements definition

• Complex systems are usually developed to address

wicked problems
– So many related entities that there is no definitive
problem specification
– An extreme example
• Earthquake planning

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 2.2.2 System design
• How the system functionality is to be provided by the
components of the system
– Partition requirements
• Analyze requirements and organize them into related groups
– Identify sub-systems
• Individually or collectively meet the requirements
– Assign requirements to sub-systems
• Never a clean match between requirements partitions and
identified sub-systems
– Specify sub-system functionality
– Define sub-system interfaces

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 The system design process
Partition Define sub-system
requirements interfaces

Identify Specify sub-system

sub-systems functionality

Assign requirements
to sub-systems

• Double-ended arrows
– A lot of feedback and iteration from one stage to another in the
design process

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 Requirements and design
 Requirements affect design decisions and vice versa
◦ In practice, the are inextricably linked
 Constraints posed by the existing systems may
◦ Limit design choices
◦ These choices may be specified in the requirements
◦ Initial design may be necessary to structure the
requirements.
 As you do design, you learn more about the
requirements.

Ku-Yaw Chang Socio-technical Systems 24

Spiral model of requirements/design

Requirements
Architectural
Elicitation and
Design
Analysis

Start

Problem Review and

Definition Assessment

System Requirements and Design

Socio-technical Systems 25
 2.2.3 System modeling
• An architectural model
– A set of components (sub-systems) and their relationships
– An abstract view of the sub-systems making up a system
– More appropriate to classify sub-systems according to
their function
• Before making decisions about hardware/software trade-offs
– Illustrated graphically and presented as a block diagram
• Be supplemented by brief descriptions of each subsystem
• May be used for all sizes of system

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A simple burglar alarm system

Movement Door
sensors sensors

Alarm
controller

External
control centre
Voice Telephone
Siren
synthesiser caller

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 Sub-system description

Sub-system Description
Movement sensors Detects movement in the rooms monitored by the system
Door sensors Detects door opening in the external doors of the building
Alarm controller Controls the operation of the system
Siren Emits an audible warning when an intruder is suspected
Voice synthesizer Synthesizes a voice message giving the location of the suspected intruder
Telephone caller Makes external calls to notify security, the police, etc.

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ATC system architecture
Radar Transponder Data comms. Aircraft Telephone
system system system comms. system

Position Backup Comms . Backup comms.

processor position processor processor
processor

Aircraft Flight plan

simulation database
system

Weather map
system

Controller Controller
Accounting info. system consoles
system

Activity logging
system

Socio-technical Systems 29
 2.2.4 Sub-system development
• The implementation may involve starting
– Another system engineering process
– A software process
• Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) systems are bought
for integration into the system
– May reenter the design activity
• Usually developed in parallel
– Problems cutting across sub-system boundaries are
encountered
• A system modification must be made - changes in the software
requirements

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 2.2.5 Systems integration
• Putting hardware, software and people together to make a
complete system
• Two approaches
– A ‘big bang’ approach
• All sub-systems are integrated at the same time
– An incremental integration approach
• Sub-systems are integrated one at a time
• Best approach
– Impossible to finish all sub-systems at the same time
– Reduce the cost of error location
• An extensive program of system testing
– The interfaces between components
– The behavior of the system as a whole

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 2.2.6 System installation
• After completion, the system has to be installed in
the customer’s environment
– Environmental assumptions may be incorrect;
– May be human resistance to the introduction of
a new system
– System may have to coexist with alternative
systems for some time
– May be physical installation problems (e.g.
cabling problems)
– Operator training has to be identified

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 2.2.7 System evolution
• Complex systems have a very long lifetime
– To correct errors
– To implement new requirements
• Evolution is inherently costly
– Changes must be analyzed from a technical and business perspective
– Sub-systems interact so unanticipated problems can arise
– There is rarely a rationale for original design decisions
– System structure is corrupted as changes are made to it
• Existing systems which must be maintained are sometimes
called legacy systems.

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 2.2.8 System decommissioning
• Taking the system out of service after its useful
operation lifetime
– May require removal of materials (e.g. dangerous
chemicals) which pollute the environment
• Should be planned for in the system design by encapsulation
– May require data to be restructured and converted to be
used in some other system

Socio-technical Systems 34
 Contents
2.1 Emergent system properties
2.2 System engineering
2.3 Organizations, people and computer systems
2.4 Legacy systems
2.5 Exercises

Socio-technical Systems 35
 Organizations, people and
computer systems
• Socio-technical systems
– Enterprise systems to deliver some
organizational/business goal
– Embedded in an organizational environment
• Need to understand its organizational environment
• Human and organizational factors
– Process changes
• Require changes to the work processes?
– Job changes
• De-skill the users or change the way they work?
– Organizational changes
• Change the political power structure in an organization?

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 2.3.1 Organizational processes
• The development process interacts with
– The procurement process
• Making decisions about
– The best way to acquire a system
– The best suppliers
– The operational process
• Using the system for its intended purpose

Procurement
process
Development
process
Operational
process

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 The system procurement process
• Large complex systems
– a mixture of off-the-shelf and specially built components
• Important points
– Off-the-shelf components do not usually match
requirements exactly
• May have to modify the requirements
– The specification of requirements acts as the basis of a
contract for a specially built system
• A legal and technical document
– After a contractor has been selected, there is a contract
negotiation period

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 The system procurement process

Off-the-shelf
system available
Adapt Choose Issue request Choose
requirements system for bids supplier

Survey market for

existing systems

Issue request Select Negotiate Let contract for

to tender tender contract development
Custom system
required

Socio-technical Systems 39
 Contents
2.1 Emergent system properties
2.2 System engineering
2.3 Organizations, people and computer systems
2.4 Legacy systems
2.5 Exercises

Socio-technical Systems 40
 Legacy systems
• Large computer-based systems usually have a long
lifetime
– 20 years for military systems
– Air traffic control (ATC) relies on software and operational
processes that were developed in the 1960s and 1970s
– Too expensive and too risky to discard such business
critical systems after a few years of use
• Their development continues throughout their life
with changes
– Requirements
– Operating platforms

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 Legacy systems
• Socio-technical computer-based systems that
developed in the past using older or obsolete
technology
– Hardware and software
– Legacy processes and procedures
• Often business-critical systems
– Too risky to replace them
– e.g. bank customer accounting system
– e.g. aircraft maintenance system
• Constrain new business processes and consume a
high proportion of company budgets

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 Legacy system components
Embeds
knowledge of
Uses
Support software Application Business policies
software and rules

Runs-on Runs-on Uses Uses Constrains

System Application Business

hardware data processes

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Layered model of a legacy system

Socio-technical system

Business processes

Application software

Support software

Hardware

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 References
• Software Engineering, Roger S Pressman
• Ku-Yaw Chang, Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science and
Information Engineering, Da-Yeh University

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