Steady Incompressible Flow in

Pressure Conduits
Lecture - 10
 Significance of Conduits
 In considering the convenience and necessities in every day life, it is
truly amazing to note the role played by conduits in transporting
fluid.
 For example, the water in our homes is normally conveyed through
pressure pipelines, from the distribution system, so that it will be
available when and where we want it.
 Moreover, virtually all of this water leaves our homes as dilute
wastes through sewers, another type of conduits. Oil is often
transferred from their source by pressure pipelines to refineries while
gas is conveyed by pipelines into a distribution network for supply.
 Thus, it can be seen that the fluid flow in conduits is of immense
practical significance in civil/environmental engineering.
 Pipe Flow System
 A pipe is a closed conduit, generally of circular
cross-section, used to carry water or any other
fluid.
 When the pipe is running full, the flow is under
pressure. But if the pipe is not running full (as in case
of sewer pipes, culverts etc), the flow is not under
pressure.
 In such case the atmospheric pressure exists inside
the pipe. We will discuss the flow of pipes under
pressure only.
 Hydraulic Radius

 Hydraulic Radius = Rh = A/P (8.3)

Where,
 A is cross-sectional Area of water

 P is the Wetted Perimeter (length of boundary in contact

with water)
 Hydraulic Radius
 For Pipe Flow:

A  R 2 & P  2R
R 2
R D
Rh    (8.4)
2R 2 4
 HEAD
(REF: Lecture 7)

 p1 V 2   p V 2 
  z1  1   hL   2  z 2  2  (5.28)
 2 g    2 g 
 
 In above equation each term has the dimensions of length. Thusp,
called the pressure head, represents the energy per unit weight stored
in the fluid by virtue of the pressure under which the fluid exists.
 Z called the elevation head or potential head, represents the potential
energy per pound of fluid;
 V2/2g, called the velocity head, represents the kinetic energy per
pound of fluid.
 We call the sum of these three terms the total head, usually denoted
by H, so that
p V2
H  z (5.35)
 2g
 Graphical representation of Pressure
Head and Velocity Head
 If pressure head of liquid flowing in a pipe be plotted as
vertical ordinates on the centre line of the pipe, then the line
joining the tops of such ordinates is known as Hydraulic
Grade Line (HGL).
 If the sum of pressure heads and velocity heads of a liquid
flowing in a pipe be plotted as vertical ordinates on the center
line of the pipe then the line joining the tops of such ordinates
is known as Energy Grade Line (EGL) or Total Energy
Line (TEL).
 In other words EGL lies over the HGL by an amount equal to
the velocity heads as shown the figure.
Graphical representation of Pressure
Head and Velocity Head
 Loss of Head in Pipes
 When the water is flowing in a pipe, it experiences some
resistance to its motion, whose effect is to reduce the velocity
and ultimately the available head of water.
 Though there are many type of losses, yet the major loss is
due to frictional resistance of the pipe only.
 The frictional resistance depends upon the roughness of inside
surface of pipe. It has been experimentally found that more
the roughness of inside surface of pipe, greater will be the
resistance.
 This friction is known as fluid friction and the resistance is
known as frictional resistance.
 Losses
 Fluids have losses due to friction in the pipe and minor losses
associated with change of pipe cross-section, change of pipe
direction and pipe fittings, i.e., tees, elbow, valves etc.
 Thus Bernoulli’s Equation becomes,

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
  z1      z 2    h f  hm
 2g    2g 

Where,
hf = Friction head loss.
hm = Minor head loss.
 1. Frictional Losses in Pipe Flow
 In fluid flow, the friction head loss can be calculated by
considering the pressure losses along the pipelines.
 In a horizontal pipe of length ‘L’,, diameter ‘D’ and carrying a
steady flow having velocity ‘V’, the head loss due to pipe
friction is given by the following equation:
L V2
hf  f
D 2g
This equation is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation. In this
equation ‘f ‘is a dimensionless coefficient whose value mainly
depends on roughness of pipe walls.
 2. Minor Losses
 In addition to head loss due to friction, there are always other
head losses due to pipe expansions and contractions, bends,
valves, and other pipe fittings. These losses are usually known
as minor losses (hm).

 In case of a long pipeline, the minor losses may be negligible

compared to the friction losses, however, in the case of short
pipelines, their contribution may be significant. These are:

 Losses due to pipe fittings

 Sudden Enlargement
 Sudden Contraction
 Bends etc.
PIPE FLOW ANALYSIS
 Pipes in Series
 When two or more pipes of different diameters or roughness
are connected in such a way that the fluid follows a single path
throughout the system, the system represents pipes in series.
 In a series pipeline the total energy loss is the sum of the
individual minor losses and all pipe friction losses.

 Discharge = Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = ---
 Head losses = hL = hL1 +hL2 +hL3 + ---
 Pipes in Parallel
 A combination of two or more pipes connected between two points
so that the discharge divides at the first junction and re-joins at the
next is known as pipes in parallel.
 Here the head loss between the two junctions is the same for all
pipes.

 Discharge = Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ---
 Head losses = hL = hL1 =hL2 =hL3 = ---
 Pipe Networks
 In municipal distribution systems, pipes are frequently
interconnected so that the flow to a given outlet may come by
several different paths, as shown in Fig.
 Pipe Networks
 As a result, we often cannot tell by inspection which way the
flow travels, as in pipe BE. Nevertheless, the flow in any
network, however complicated, must satisfy the basic
relations of continuity and energy as follows:

1. The flow into any junction (node) must equal the flow out of
it.
2. The flow in each pipe must satisfy the pipe-friction laws.
3. The algebraic sum of head losses around any closed loop must
be zero.
 Pipe Nework Analysis
 Pipe network analysis involves the determination of the pipe
flow rates and pressure heads at the outflows points of the
network. The flow rate and pressure heads must satisfy the
continuity and energy equations.
 The earliest systematic method of network analysis (Hardy-
Cross Method) is known as the head balance or closed loop
method. This method is applicable to system in which pipes
form closed loops. The outflows from the system are generally
assumed to occur at the nodes junction.
 Hardy-Cross method is an iterative procedure(Iteration is the
act of repeating a process with the aim of approaching a desired
goal, target or result). At each junction these flows must satisfy
the continuity criterion, i.e. the algebraic sum of the flow rates
in the pipe meeting at a junction, together with any external
flows is zero.
Procedure:
Step-1:
 By careful inspection assume the most reasonable distribution of

flows that satisfies condition 1.

Step-2:
 Write condition 2 for each pipe in the form:

hL  KQ n (8.95)
where K and n are constants for each pipe (Detail provided in Sec.
8.19).
If minor losses are important include them as in Eq. (8.93), which
yields K = 1/C2 and n = 2 for constant f We may include minor losses
within any pipe or loop, but must neglect them at the junction points.
Procedure:
Step-3:
 To investigate condition 3, compute the algebraic sum of the head

losses around each elementary loop, ∑ hL = ∑.KQn. Consider losses

from clock­wise flows as positive, counterclockwise negative. Only
by good luck will these add up to zero on the first trial.
Step-4:
 Adjust the flow in each loop by a correction ∆Q to balance the

head in that loop and give ∑KQn = 0. The heart of this method lies
in the following determination of ∆Q. For any pipe, we may write
Q = Q0 + ∆Q
Procedure:
 where Q is the correct discharge and Qo is the assumed
discharge. Then, for each pipe,

hL  KQ n  K (Q0  Q) n  K (Q0n 1 Q  ....)

 If ∆Q is small compared with Qo, we may neglect the terms of

the binomial series after the second one, so that

hL  KQ0n  QKnQ0n 1

 For a loop, ∑hL = ∑KQn = 0, so because ∆Q is the same for all

pipes in that loop,
 0
KQ n
 Q  0 0
KnQ n 1
Procedure:
 As we must sum the corrections of head loss in all pipes
arithmetically (treating all terms as positive), we may solve this
equation for ∆Q,

  KQ0   hL
n

Q   (8.96)
n | KQ n 1
0 n | hL / Q0 |

 since, from Eq. (8.95), hL/Q = KQn-l. We emphasize again that

we must sum the numerator of Eq. (8.96) algebraically, with
due account of each sign, while we must sum the denominator
arithmetically. Note that the Q0 | Q0n 1 | in the numerator gives
this quantity the same sign as the head loss.
Procedure:
 The negative sign in Eq. (8.96) indicates that when there is an
excess of head loss around a loop in the clockwise direction, we
must subtract the ∆Q from clockwise Qo values and add it to
counterclockwise ones. The reverse is true if there is a deficiency
of head loss around a loop in the clockwise direction.
Step-5:
 After we have given each loop a first correction, the losses will

still not balance, because of the interaction of one loop upon

another (pipes which are common to two loops receive two
independent corrections, one for each loop). So we repeat the
procedure, arriving at a second correction, and so on, until the
corrections become negligible.
Procedure:
 We may use either form of Eq. (8.96) to find ∆Q

  hL
Q  (8.96)
n  | h L / Q0 |

As values of K appear in both the numerator and denominator of

the first form, we can use values proportional to the actual K to
find the distribution. The second form is more convenient for
use with pipe-friction diagrams for water pipes.
 An attractive feature of this approximation method is, that

errors in computation have the same effect as errors in

judgment and the process eventually corrects them.
 Problem-1
 If the flow into and out of a two-loop pipe system are as
shown in Fig., determine the flow in each pipe using only a
basic scientific calculator. The K values for each pipe were
calculated from the pipe and minor loss characteristics and
from an assumed value of f, and n = 2,
Solution:
 As a first step, assume a flow in each pipe such that
continuity holds at all junctions.
 Take clockwise flows as positive. Calculate Q for
each loop, make corrections to the assumed Qs, and
repeat several times until the Qs are quite small.
 Problem-2
 Find the magnitude and direction of the flow in network lines
ab and bc (Fig. P8.117) after making two sets of corrections.
The numbers on the figure are the K values of each line; take
n = 2.0. Start by assuming initial flows as follows: 9 cfs in
lines ab and cd, 6 cfs in lines ac and bd, and 3 cfs in line bc.
 Assignment-3
 Carry the solution for the pipe network of Fig. through four
trials, to find the flow in each pipe.
 Assignment-3
 For simplicity, take n = 2.0 and use the value of f for complete
turbulence, as given by Eq. (8.54).
 All pipes are cast iron, and are at the same elevation. For
initial flows, assume only values of 30,15, and 0 L/s (the zeros
in dg and fh).
 If the pressure head at a is 40 m, find the pressure head at d
(which might represent a fire demand, for example)
neglecting velocity heads.
Formulas Used:
h L  KQ 2
Darcy - Weisbach w ith constant f :
8 fL
K 2 5 (n  2) (8.66)
 gD
Fully Rough Pipe :
2
  3.7 
f  f min  2 log  (8.54)
  e / D 
For Cast Iron, e  0.00025 m (Table - 8.1)
Pressure Head at d :
pd pa
   hL  ac   hL  cd
 