+

William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,

NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts and
Computer Evolution
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 Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
• Attributes of a system visible to • Instruction set,
the programmer number of bits used to
• Have a direct impact on the represent various data
logical execution of a program types, I/O
mechanisms,
techniques for
addressing memory

Architectural
Computer
attributes
Architecture
include:

Organization
Computer
al attributes
Organization
include:

• Hardware details transparent to

the programmer: control signals,
interfaces between the computer • The operational units
and peripherals, memory and their
technology used interconnections that
realize the
architectural
specifications

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+
IBM System
370 Architecture
 IBM System/370 architecture
 Introduced in 1970
 Included a number of models
 Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having
to abandon original software
 New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain
the same architecture protecting the customer’s software
investment
 Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBM’s
mainframe product line

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+
Intel x86
Family Architecture
 All x86 processors share same basic architecture
 Began with 8-bit 8086 in 1978
 Developed through many generation to today’s 64-bit Core i3, i5
and i7 processors
 Clones developed by other companies: AMD, Cyrix, etc.
 Clones support the same architecture with a different
organization
 Architecture shared by machines ranging from tablets through
supercomputers
 Provides code compatibility
 At least backwards
 Organization differs between different versions

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+
Structure and Function

Function
• What the individual parts of the computer
do
• The role each component plays in the
operation of the computer
Structure
• The way in which components relate to each
other
• How does each component know when to
perform its function
• How is information moved between
components

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+
Function
 There are four basic functions that a computer can
perform:
 Data processing
 Data storage
 Short-term
 Long-term
 Data movement
 Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered
to a device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the
computer
 Data communications – when data are moved over longer
distances, to or from a remote device
 Control
 A control unit manages the computer’s resources and
orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in
response to instructions
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+
Hierarchical Structure
Systems Made of Systems
COMPUTER

 Hierarchical system I/O Main

memory
 Set of interrelated System
Bus
subsystems
CPU
 Hierarchical nature of CPU

complex systems is Registers ALU

essential to both their
design and their description
Internal
Bus

Control
 Designer need only deal Unit

with a particular level of the CONTROL

UNIT

system at a time
Sequencing
Logic

Control Unit
 Concerned with structure Registers and
Decoders

and function at each level Control

Memory

© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved. Figure1.1 A Top-Down View of a Computer
+
 CPU – controls the
operation of the computer
There are four and performs its data
main structural processing functions
components
of the  Main Memory – stores data
computer:  I/O – moves data between
the computer and its
external environment

 System Interconnection –
some mechanism that
provides for communication
among CPU, main memory,
and I/O
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+  Control Unit
CPU  Controls the operation of the CPU
and hence the computer
Major structural
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
components:  Performs the computer’s data
processing function

 Registers
 Provide storage internal to the
CPU

 CPU Interconnection
 Some mechanism that provides
for communication among the
control unit, ALU, and registers

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+
Multicore Computer Structure

 A system may have processors that consist of multiple

cores

 Core
 An individual processing unit on a processor chip
 May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU
system
 Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores

 Processor
 A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores
 The computer component that interprets and executes
instructions
 Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores

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+
Cache Memory
Increasing Performance
 Main memory is cheap but slow

 The solution is to place faster memory between a

processor core and main memory

 Used to cache data from main memory that is likely to

be used in the near future

 A greater performance improvement may be obtained

by using multiple levels of cache, with level 1 (L1)
closest to the core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.)
progressively farther from the core

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 MOTHERBOARD
Main memory chips

Processor
I/O chips chip

PROCESSOR CHIP

Core Core Core Core

L3 cache L3 cache

Core Core Core Core

CORE
Arithmetic
Instruction and logic Load/
logic unit (ALU) storelogic

L1 I-cache L1 data cache

L2 instruction L2 data
cache cache

Figure1.2 Simplified View of Major Elements of a MulticoreComputer

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 Figure 1.4

zEnterprise
EC12
Processor Unit
(PU)
Chip Diagram

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 Figure 1.5

zEnterprise
EC12
Core Layout

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+
Table 1.2
Computer Generations
 
Approximate Typical Speed
Generation Dates Technology (operations per second)
1 1946–1957 Vacuum tube 40,000
2 1957–1964 Transistor 200,000
3 1965–1971 Small and medium scale 1,000,000
integration
4 1972–1977 Large scale integration 10,000,000
5 1978–1991 Very large scale integration 100,000,000
6 1991- Ultra large scale integration >1,000,000,000

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+
History of Computers
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

 Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic

elements and memory
 IAS computer
 Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept
 Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann
 First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC
 The big advance was that programs were stored as data
 Programs and data share the same memory
 Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
 Completed in 1952
 Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers
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+
IAS Architecture
 1000 x 40 bit words
 One binary number
 2 x 20 bit instructions

 Set of registers (storage in CPU)

 Memory Buffer Register
 Memory Address Register
 Instruction Register
 Instruction Buffer Register
 Program Counter
 Accumulator
 Multiplier Quotient

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 0 1 39

sign bit (a) Number word

left instruction (20 bits) right instruction (20 bits)

0 8 20 28 39

opcode(8 bits) address (12 bits) opcode(8 bits) address (12 bits)

(b) Instruction word

Figure1.7 IAS Memory Formats

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+
Memory
 Early core memory was implements as small magnetic
cores, “doughnuts” that were trapped at the
intersections of a wire grid

 By controlling the current in the connecting wires, the

cores could be flipped from one orientation to another

 Current orientations could also be read,

but reading the position of a
core could also cause it to flip
 A read was “destructive” and
afterwards the information
would need to be rewritten

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+
History of Computers
Second Generation:
Transistors
 Smaller

 Cheaper

 Dissipates less heat

 Much more reliable

 Is a solid state device made from silicon

 Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 (William Shockley, et

al.)

 It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized

computers were commercially available
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+
Second Generation Computers

 Introduced:
 More complex arithmetic and logic units and
control units
 The use of high-level programming
languages
 Introduction of system software which
provided the ability to:
 Load programs
 Move data to peripherals
 Libraries to perform common computations

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 History of Computers
Second Generation: Transistors

 Discrete component
 Single, self-contained transistor
 Manufactured separately, packaged in their own
containers, and soldered or wired together onto
masonite-like circuit boards
 Manufacturing process was expensive and
cumbersome

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 History of Computers
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit

 Several transistors packaged together on a

single silicon chip

 The two most important members of the third

generation were the IBM System/360 and the
DEC PDP-8

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+
Integrated
Circuits
 Logic gates are simple  Exploits the fact that such
circuits that perform a single components as transistors,
logical operation (and, or, resistors, and conductors can
not, etc.) be fabricated from a
 A computer consists of semiconductor such as silicon
gates, memory cells, and  Many transistors can be
interconnections among produced at the same time on a
these elements single wafer of silicon

 The gates and memory  Transistors can be connected

cells are constructed of with a processor metallization
simple digital electronic to form circuits
components

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 Wafer

Chip

Gate

Packaged
chip

Figure1.11 Relationship Among Wafer, Chip, and Gate

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+
IBM System/360

 Announced in 1964

 Product line was incompatible with older IBM machines

 Was the success of the decade and cemented IBM as

the overwhelmingly dominant computer vendor

 The architecture remains to this day the architecture of

IBM’s mainframe computers

 Was the industry’s first planned family of computers

 Models were compatible in the sense that a program
written for one model should be capable of being executed
by another model in the series

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+ Family Characteristics
Similar or
Similar or
identical
identical
operating
instruction set
system

Increasing
Increasing
number of I/O
speed
ports

Increasing
Increasing cost
memory size

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 + LSI
Large
Scale
Later Integratio
n

Generation
VLSI
s Very Large
Scale
Integration

ULSI
Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large
Microprocessors Scale
Integration

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 100 bn
10 bn
1 bn
100 m
10 m
100,000
10.000
1,000
100
10
1
1947 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 2000 05 11

Figure 1.12 Grow th in Transistor Count on I ntegrated Circuits

( DRAM memory)

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Moore’s Law
1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that

could be put on a single chip was
doubling every year
Consequences of Moore’s
The pace slowed
law:
to a doubling
every 18 months
in the 1970’s but The cost of Computer
The
has sustained computer becomes
electrical Reduction in
logic and smaller and is
that rate ever memory
path length
more
power and Fewer
since is shortened, cooling interchip
circuitry has convenient to
increasing use in a requirement connections
fallen at a
operating variety of s
dramatic
speed environments
rate

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+
Moore’s Law
 The cost of a “chip” as remained relatively constant
over the years.

 As the number of transistors increases this means

there is a much higher computing capacity for the
same price

 As more logic circuits are packed more closely

together, the time it takes for an electrical signal to
move between them drops
 This allows for higher clock speeds and an
additional increase in performance

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 Semiconductor Memory

In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor

memory
Chip was about the Could hold 256 bits Much faster than
Non-destructive
size of a single core of memory core

In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price
There has been a continuing and
perrapid
bit of core Developments
memory in memory and processor
decline in memory cost accompanied by a
technologies changed the nature of
corresponding increase in physical memory
computers in less than a decade
density

Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations

Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation,
accompanied by declining cost per bit and declining access time

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+
Microprocessors
 The density of elements on processor chips continued to
rise
 More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer
and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer
processor

 1971 Intel developed 4004

 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single
chip
 Birth of microprocessor

 1972 Intel developed 8008

 First 8-bit microprocessor

 1974 Intel developed 8080

 First general purpose microprocessor
 Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing
capability
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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

4004 8008 8080 8086 8088

Introduced 1971 1972 1974 1978 1979
5 MHz, 8 MHz, 10
Clock speeds 108 kHz 108 kHz 2 MHz 5 MHz, 8 MHz
MHz
Bus width 4 bits 8 bits 8 bits 16 bits 8 bits
Number of 2,300 3,500 6,000 29,000 29,000
transistors
Feature size
10 8 6 3 6
(µm)
Addressable
640 Bytes 16 KB 64 KB 1 MB 1 MB
memory

(a) 1970s Processors

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
486TM DX
80286 386TM DX 386TM SX
CPU
Introduced 1982 1985 1988 1989
6 MHz - 12.5 16 MHz - 33 16 MHz - 33 25 MHz - 50
Clock speeds
MHz MHz MHz MHz
Bus width 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits
Number of transistors
134,000 275,000 275,000 1.2 million

Feature size (µm) 1.5 1 1 0.8 - 1

Addressable
16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB
memory
Virtual 1 GB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
memory
Cache — — — 8 kB

(b) 1980s Processors

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

486TM SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II

Introduced 1991 1993 1995 1997
16 MHz - 33 60 MHz - 166 150 MHz - 200 200 MHz - 300
Clock speeds
MHz MHz, MHz MHz
Bus width 32 bits 32 bits 64 bits 64 bits
Number of 1.185 million 3.1 million 5.5 million 7.5 million
transistors
Feature size (µm) 1 0.8 0.6 0.35
Addressable
4 GB 4 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
512 kB L1 and 1
Cache 8 kB 8 kB 512 kB L2
MB L2

(c) 1990s Processors

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Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
Core2 Duo Corei7 EE
Pentium III Pentium 4
4960X
Introduced 1999 2000 2006 2013
Clock speeds 450 - 660 MHz 1.3 - 1.8 GHz 1.06 - 1.2 GHz 4 GHz
Bus
wid 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits
th
Number of 9.5 million 42 million 167 million 1.86 billion
transistors
Feature size (nm) 250 180 65 22
Addressable 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
1.5 MB L2/15
Cache 512 kB L2 256 kB L2 2 MB L2
MB L3
Number of cores 1 1 2 6

(d) Recent Processors

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 Highlights of the Evolution of
the Intel Product Line:
8080 8086 80286 80386 80486
• World’s first • A more • Extension of • Intel’s first 32- • Introduced the
general- powerful 16- the 8086 bit machine use of much
purpose bit machine enabling • First Intel more
microprocesso • Has an addressing a processor to sophisticated
r instruction 16-MB support and powerful
• 8-bit machine, cache, or memory multitasking cache
8-bit data path queue, that instead of just technology
to memory prefetches a 1MB and
• Was used in few sophisticated
the first instructions instruction
personal before they pipelining
computer are executed • Also offered a
(Altair) • The first built-in math
appearance of coprocessor
the x86
architecture
• The 8088 was
a variant of
this processor
and used in
IBM’s first
personal
computer
(securing the
success of
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Intel NJ. All rights reserved.
Highlights of the Evolution of
the Intel Product Line:
Pentium
• Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in
parallel
Pentium Pro
• Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming,
branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution

Pentium II
• Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and
graphics data efficiently

Pentium III
• Incorporated additional floating-point instructions
• Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)

Pentium 4
• Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia

Core
• First Intel x86 micro-core

Core 2
• Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits
• Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip
• More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip
• An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set

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+
RISC verses CISC
 Two major architecture approaches

 Complex instruction set computers (CISC)

 Many instructions in instruction set
 Each instruction can do a complex task
 Instructions can be specialized
 Complex job can be done with fewer instructions
 Shorter programs in machine code
 Difficult to optimize each instruction
 Generally, lower clock speed but more accomplished with each cycle

 Reduced instruction set computers (RISC)

 Fewer instructions that do simpler more basic tasks
 Several instructions must be combined to do complex jobs
 Longer programs in machine code
 Easier to optimize each instruction
 Generally, higher clock speed but less accomplished with each cycle

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+
Intel x86 verses ARM
 Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM
architectures

 Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of

design effort on complex instruction set computers

 ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded

systems and is one of the most powerful and best-
designed RISC-based systems on the market

 Most x86 systems are designed as RISC core(s) with

control circuitry that breaks CISC instructions down into
a series of RISC instructions.
 Speed of RISC but runs CISC code

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+
Embedded Systems
 The use of electronics and software within a product

 Billions of computer systems are produced each

year that are embedded within larger devices

 Today many devices that use electric power have an

embedded computing system

 Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to

their environment
 This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by
the need to interact with the environment
 Required speeds of motion, required precision of
measurement, and required time durations
 These dictate the timing of software operations
 If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously
this imposes more complex real-time constraints
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 ARM
Refers to a processor architecture that has evolved
from RISC design principles and is used in embedded
systems
Family of RISC-based microprocessors and
microcontrollers designed by ARM Holdings,
Cambridge, England

Chips are high-speed processors that are known for

their small die size and low power requirements

Probably the most widely used embedded processor

architecture and indeed the most widely used
processor architecture of any kind in the world

Acorn RISC Machine/Advanced RISC Machine

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 Custom
logic

Processor Memory

Human Diagnostic
interface port

A/D D/A
conversion Conversion

Actuators/
Sensors
indicators

Figure1.14 PossibleOrganization of an Embedded System

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+
The Internet of Things (IoT)
 Term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging
from appliances to tiny sensors

 Primarily driven by deeply embedded devices

 Generations of deployment culminating in the IoT:

 Information technology (IT)
 PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by enterprise IT
people and primarily using wired connectivity
 Operational technology (OT)
 Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as medical
machinery, process control, and kiosks, bought as appliances by enterprise OT
people and primarily using wired connectivity
 Personal technology
 Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers
exclusively using wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless
connectivity
 Sensor/actuator technology
 Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people exclusively using
wireless connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems

 It is the fourth generation that is usually thought of as the IoT and it is marked
by the use of billions of embedded devices

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+
Embedded Application Processors
Operating versus
Systems Dedicated Processors

 There are two general  Application processors

approaches to developing  Defined by the processor’s ability to
an embedded operating execute complex operating systems
 General-purpose in nature
system (OS):
 An example is the smartphone – the
 Take an existing OS and embedded system is designed to
adapt it for the support numerous apps and perform
a wide variety of functions
embedded application
 Design and implement an  Dedicated processor
OS intended solely for  Is dedicated to one or a small
embedded use number of specific tasks required by
the host device
 Because such an embedded system
is dedicated to a specific task or
tasks, the processor and associated
components can be engineered to
reduce size and cost

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+
Deeply Embedded Systems
 Subset of embedded systems

 Has a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe both by the

programmer and the user

 Uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor

 Is not programmable once the program logic for the device has been
burned into ROM

 Has no interaction with a user

 Dedicated, single-purpose devices that detect something in the

environment, perform a basic level of processing, and then do
something with the results

 Often have wireless capability and appear in networked configurations,

such as networks of sensors deployed over a large area

 Typically have extreme resource constraints in terms of memory,

processor size, time, and power consumption

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+
Cloud Computing

 NIST defines cloud computing as:

“A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-

demand network access to a shared pool of configurable
computing resources that can be rapidly
provisioned and released with minimal management
effort or service provider interaction.”

 You get economies of scale, professional network

management, and professional security management

 The individual or company only needs to pay for the storage

capacity and services they need

 Cloud provider takes care of security

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 Cloud Networking
 Refers to the networks and network management functionality that must
be in place to enable cloud computing

 One example is the provisioning of high-performance and/or high-

reliability networking between the provider and subscriber

 The collection of network capabilities required to access a cloud,

including making use of specialized services over the Internet, linking
enterprise data center to a cloud, and using firewalls and other network
security devices at critical points to enforce access security policies

Cloud Storage
 Subset of cloud computing

 Consists of database storage and database applications hosted remotely

on cloud servers

 Enables small businesses and individual users to take advantage of data

storage that scales with their needs and to take advantage of a variety of
database applications without having to buy, maintain, and manage the
storage assets
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+ Summary Basic Concepts
and Computer
Evolution
Chapter 1
 Organization and architecture
 Embedded systems
 Structure and function
 The Internet of things
 Brief history of computers  Embedded operating systems
 The First Generation: Vacuum  Application processors versus
tubes
dedicated processors
 The Second Generation:
Transistors
 Microprocessors versus
microcontrollers
 The Third Generation: Integrated
Circuits  Embedded versus deeply
 Later generations embedded systems

 The evolution of the Intel x86  ARM architecture

architecture  ARM evolution
 Cloud computing  Instruction set architecture
 Basic concepts  ARM products
 Cloud services
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+ Homework Basic Concepts
and Computer
Evolution
Chapter 1
Review Questions:
Problems:
 1.1, 1.3, 1.6, 1.7
 1.8, 1.9, 1.10

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