Data Mining: Data

Lecture Notes for Chapter 2

Introduction to Data Mining , 2nd Edition

by
Tan, Steinbach, Kumar

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Outline

 Attributes and Objects

 Types of Data

 Data Quality

 Similarity and Distance

 Data Preprocessing

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What is Data?

 Collection of data objects Attributes

and their attributes
Tid Refund Marital Taxable
 An attribute is a property or Status Income Cheat
characteristic of an object
1 Yes Single 125K No
– Examples: eye color of a
2 No Married 100K No
person, temperature, etc.
– Attribute is also known as 3 No Single 70K No

Objects
variable, field, characteristic, 4 Yes Married 120K No
dimension, or feature 5 No Divorced 95K Yes
 A collection of attributes 6 No Married 60K No
describe an object 7 Yes Divorced 220K No
– Object is also known as record, 8 No Single 85K Yes
point, case, sample, entity, or
9 No Married 75K No
instance
10 No Single 90K Yes
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A More Complete View of Data

 Data may have parts

 Attributes (objects) may have relationships with

other attributes (objects)

 More generally, data may have structure

 Data can be incomplete

 We will discuss this in more detail later

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Attribute Values

 Attribute values are numbers or symbols

assigned to an attribute for a particular object

 Distinction between attributes and attribute values

– Same attribute can be mapped to different attribute
values
 Example: height can be measured in feet or meters

– Different attributes can be mapped to the same set of

values
 Example: Attribute values for ID and age are integers
 But properties of attribute values can be different

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 Measurement of Length
 The way you measure an attribute may not match the
attributes properties.
5 A 1

B
7 2

C
This scale This scale
8 3
preserves preserves
only the the ordering
ordering D and additvity
property of properties of
length. 10 4 length.

15 5

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 Types of Attributes

 There are different types of attributes

– Nominal
 Examples: ID numbers, eye color, zip codes
– Ordinal
 Examples: rankings (e.g., taste of potato chips on a scale
from 1-10), grades, height {tall, medium, short}
– Interval
 Examples: calendar dates, temperatures in Celsius or
Fahrenheit.
– Ratio
 Examples: temperature in Kelvin, length, counts, elapsed
time (e.g., time to run a race)
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Properties of Attribute Values

 The type of an attribute depends on which of the following

properties/operations it possesses:
– Distinctness: = 
– Order: < >
– Differences are + -
meaningful :
– Ratios are * /
meaningful

– Nominal attribute: distinctness

– Ordinal attribute: distinctness & order
– Interval attribute: distinctness, order & meaningful differences
– Ratio attribute: all 4 properties/operations
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Difference Between Ratio and Interval

 Is it physically meaningful to say that a

temperature of 10 ° is twice that of 5° on
– the Celsius scale?
– the Fahrenheit scale?
– the Kelvin scale?

 Consider measuring the height above average

– If Bill’s height is three inches above average and
Bob’s height is six inches above average, then would
we say that Bob is twice as tall as Bill?
– Is this situation analogous to that of temperature?

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 Attribute Description Examples Operations
Type
Nominal Nominal attribute zip codes, employee mode, entropy,
values only ID numbers, eye contingency
distinguish. (=, ) color, sex: {male, correlation, 2
Categorical
Qualitative

female} test

Ordinal Ordinal attribute hardness of minerals, median,

values also order {good, better, best}, percentiles, rank
objects. grades, street correlation, run
(<, >) numbers tests, sign tests
Interval For interval calendar dates, mean, standard
attributes, temperature in deviation,
differences between Celsius or Fahrenheit Pearson's
Quantitative
Numeric

values are correlation, t and

meaningful. (+, - ) F tests
Ratio For ratio variables, temperature in Kelvin, geometric mean,
both differences and monetary quantities, harmonic mean,
ratios are counts, age, mass, percent variation
meaningful. (*, /) length, current

This
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 Attribute Transformation Comments
Type
Nominal Any permutation of values If all employee ID numbers
were reassigned, would it
make any difference?
Categorical
Qualitative

Ordinal An order preserving change of An attribute encompassing

values, i.e., the notion of good, better best
new_value = f(old_value) can be represented equally
where f is a monotonic function well by the values {1, 2, 3} or
by { 0.5, 1, 10}.

Interval new_value = a * old_value + b Thus, the Fahrenheit and

where a and b are constants Celsius temperature scales
Quantitative
Numeric

differ in terms of where their

zero value is and the size of a
unit (degree).
Ratio new_value = a * old_value Length can be measured in
meters or feet.

This
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Discrete and Continuous Attributes

 Discrete Attribute
– Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values
– Examples: zip codes, counts, or the set of words in a
collection of documents
– Often represented as integer variables.
– Note: binary attributes are a special case of discrete
attributes
 Continuous Attribute
– Has real numbers as attribute values
– Examples: temperature, height, or weight.
– Practically, real values can only be measured and
represented using a finite number of digits.
– Continuous attributes are typically represented as floating-
point variables.
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Asymmetric Attributes
 Only presence (a non-zero attribute value) is regarded as important
 Words present in documents
 Items present in customer transactions

 If we met a friend in the grocery store would we ever say the

following?
“I see our purchases are very similar since we didn’t buy most of the same
things.”

 We need two asymmetric binary attributes to represent one ordinary

binary attribute
– Association analysis uses asymmetric attributes

 Asymmetric attributes typically arise from objects that are sets

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Some Extensions and Critiques
 Velleman, Paul F., and Leland Wilkinson. "Nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio typologies are misleading." The
American Statistician 47, no. 1 (1993): 65-72.

 Mosteller, Frederick, and John W. Tukey. "Data analysis

and regression. A second course in statistics." Addison-
Wesley Series in Behavioral Science: Quantitative
Methods, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1977.

 Chrisman, Nicholas R. "Rethinking levels of measurement

for cartography."Cartography and Geographic Information
Systems 25, no. 4 (1998): 231-242.

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Critiques
 Incomplete
– Asymmetric binary
– Cyclical
– Multivariate
– Partially ordered
– Partial membership
– Relationships between the data

 Real data is approximate and noisy

– This can complicate recognition of the proper attribute type
– Treating one attribute type as another may be approximately
correct

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Critiques …

 Not a good guide for statistical analysis

– May unnecessarily restrict operations and results
 Statistical analysis is often approximate
 Thus, for example, using interval analysis for ordinal values
may be justified
– Transformations are common but don’t preserve scales
 Can transform data to a new scale with better statistical
properties
 Many statistical analyses depend only on the distribution

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More Complicated Examples
 ID numbers
– Nominal, ordinal, or interval?

 Number of cylinders in an automobile engine

– Nominal, ordinal, or ratio?

 Biased Scale
– Interval or Ratio

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Key Messages for Attribute Types

 The types of operations you choose should be “meaningful” for the

type of data you have
– Distinctness, order, meaningful intervals, and meaningful ratios are only
four properties of data

– The data type you see – often numbers or strings – may not capture all the
properties or may suggest properties that are not present

– Analysis may depend on these other properties of the data

Many statistical analyses depend only on the distribution

– Many times what is meaningful is measured by statistical significance

– But in the end, what is meaningful is measured by the domain

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Types of data sets
 Record
– Data Matrix
– Document Data
– Transaction Data
 Graph
– World Wide Web
– Molecular Structures
 Ordered
– Spatial Data
– Temporal Data
– Sequential Data
– Genetic Sequence Data

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Important Characteristics of Data

– Dimensionality (number of attributes)

 High dimensional data brings a number of challenges

– Sparsity
 Only presence counts

– Resolution
 Patterns depend on the scale

– Size
 Type of analysis may depend on size of data

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Record Data

 Data that consists of a collection of records, each

of which consists of a fixed set of attributes
Tid Refund Marital Taxable
Status Income Cheat

1 Yes Single 125K No

2 No Married 100K No
3 No Single 70K No
4 Yes Married 120K No
5 No Divorced 95K Yes
6 No Married 60K No
7 Yes Divorced 220K No
8 No Single 85K Yes
9 No Married 75K No
10 No Single 90K Yes
10

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Data Matrix

 If data objects have the same fixed set of numeric

attributes, then the data objects can be thought of as
points in a multi-dimensional space, where each
dimension represents a distinct attribute

 Such a data set can be represented by an m by n matrix,

where there are m rows, one for each object, and n
columns, one for each attribute
Projection Projection Distance Load Thickness
of x Load of y load

10.23 5.27 15.22 2.7 1.2

12.65 6.25 16.22 2.2 1.1

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Document Data

 Each document becomes a ‘term’ vector

– Each term is a component (attribute) of the vector
– The value of each component is the number of times
the corresponding term occurs in the document.

timeout

season
coach

game
score
play
team

win
ball

lost
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2

Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0

Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0

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Transaction Data

 A special type of data, where

– Each transaction involves a set of items.
– For example, consider a grocery store. The set of products purchased
by a customer during one shopping trip constitute a transaction, while
the individual products that were purchased are the items.
– Can represent transaction data as record data

TID Items
1 Bread, Coke, Milk
2 Beer, Bread
3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
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 Graph Data
 Examples: Generic graph, a molecule, and webpages

2
5 1
2
5

Benzene Molecule: C6H6

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Ordered Data

 Sequences of transactions
Items/Events

An element of
the sequence
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Ordered Data

 Genomic sequence data

GGTTCCGCCTTCAGCCCCGCGCC
CGCAGGGCCCGCCCCGCGCCGTC
GAGAAGGGCCCGCCTGGCGGGCG
GGGGGAGGCGGGGCCGCCCGAGC
CCAACCGAGTCCGACCAGGTGCC
CCCTCTGCTCGGCCTAGACCTGA
GCTCATTAGGCGGCAGCGGACAG
GCCAAGTAGAACACGCGAAGCGC
TGGGCTGCCTGCTGCGACCAGGG

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Ordered Data

 Spatio-Temporal Data

Average Monthly
Temperature of
land and ocean

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Data Quality

 Poor data quality negatively affects many data processing

efforts
“The most important point is that poor data quality is an unfolding
disaster.
– Poor data quality costs the typical company at least ten
percent (10%) of revenue; twenty percent (20%) is
probably a better estimate.”
Thomas C. Redman, DM Review, August 2004
 Data mining example: a classification model for detecting
people who are loan risks is built using poor data
– Some credit-worthy candidates are denied loans
– More loans are given to individuals that default
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Data Quality …

 What kinds of data quality problems?

 How can we detect problems with the data?
 What can we do about these problems?

 Examples of data quality problems:

– Noise and outliers
– Missing values
– Duplicate data
– Wrong data
– Fake data
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Noise

 For objects, noise is an extraneous object

 For attributes, noise refers to modification of original values
– Examples: distortion of a person’s voice when talking on a poor phone and
“snow” on television screen

Two Sine Waves Two Sine Waves + Noise

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Outliers

 Outliers are data objects with characteristics that

are considerably different than most of the other
data objects in the data set
– Case 1: Outliers are
noise that interferes
with data analysis

– Case 2: Outliers are

the goal of our analysis
 Credit card fraud
 Intrusion detection

 Causes?
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Missing Values

 Reasons for missing values

– Information is not collected
(e.g., people decline to give their age and weight)
– Attributes may not be applicable to all cases
(e.g., annual income is not applicable to children)

 Handling missing values

– Eliminate data objects or variables
– Estimate missing values
 Example: time series of temperature
 Example: census results

– Ignore the missing value during analysis

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Missing Values …

 Missing completely at random (MCAR)

– Missingness of a value is independent of attributes
– Fill in values based on the attribute
– Analysis may be unbiased overall
 Missing at Random (MAR)
– Missingness is related to other variables
– Fill in values based other values
– Almost always produces a bias in the analysis
 Missing Not at Random (MNAR)
– Missingness is related to unobserved measurements
– Informative or non-ignorable missingness
 Not possible to know the situation from the data
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Duplicate Data

 Data set may include data objects that are duplicates, or

almost duplicates of one another
– Major issue when merging data from heterogeneous sources

 Examples:
– Same person with multiple email addresses

 Data cleaning
– Process of dealing with duplicate data issues

 When should duplicate data not be removed?

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Similarity and Dissimilarity Measures

 Similarity measure
– Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are.
– Is higher when objects are more alike.
– Often falls in the range [0,1]
 Dissimilarity measure
– Numerical measure of how different two data objects
are
– Lower when objects are more alike
– Minimum dissimilarity is often 0
– Upper limit varies
 Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity
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 Similarity/Dissimilarity for Simple Attributes

The following table shows the similarity and dissimilarity

between two objects, x and y, with respect to a single, simple
attribute.

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Euclidean Distance

 Euclidean Distance

where n is the number of dimensions (attributes) and xk

and yk are, respectively, the kth attributes (components)
or data objects x and y.

 Standardization is necessary, if scales differ.

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Euclidean Distance

3
point x y
2 p1
p1 0 2
p3 p4
1
p2 2 0
p2 p3 3 1
0 p4 5 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 2.828 3.162 5.099
p2 2.828 0 1.414 3.162
p3 3.162 1.414 0 2
p4 5.099 3.162 2 0
Distance Matrix
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Minkowski Distance

 Minkowski Distance is a generalization of Euclidean

Distance

Where r is a parameter, n is the number of dimensions

(attributes) and xk and yk are, respectively, the kth
attributes (components) or data objects x and y.

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Minkowski Distance: Examples

 r = 1. City block (Manhattan, taxicab, L1 norm) distance.

– A common example of this for binary vectors is the Hamming
distance, which is just the number of bits that are different between
two binary vectors

 r = 2. Euclidean distance

 r  . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.

– This is the maximum difference between any component of the
vectors

 Do not confuse r with n, i.e., all these distances are defined for all
numbers of dimensions.

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Minkowski Distance

L1 p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 4 4 6
p2 4 0 2 4
p3 4 2 0 2
p4 6 4 2 0
point x y
p1 0 2 L2 p1 p2 p3 p4
p2 2 0 p1 0 2.828 3.162 5.099
p3 3 1 p2 2.828 0 1.414 3.162
p4 5 1 p3 3.162 1.414 0 2
p4 5.099 3.162 2 0

L p1 p2 p3 p4
p1 0 2 3 5
p2 2 0 1 3
p3 3 1 0 2
p4 5 3 2 0

Distance Matrix
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 Mahalanobis Distance

𝐦𝐚𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐬 ( 𝐱 , 𝐲 )=( 𝐱 − 𝐲 )𝑇 Ʃ − 1( 𝐱 − 𝐲 )
 

 is the covariance matrix

For red points, the Euclidean distance is 14.7, Mahalanobis distance is 6.

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Mahalanobis Distance

Covariance
Matrix:
 0.3 0.2
 
C
 0. 2 0. 3
B A: (0.5, 0.5)
B: (0, 1)
A
C: (1.5, 1.5)

Mahal(A,B) = 5
Mahal(A,C) = 4

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Common Properties of a Distance
 Distances, such as the Euclidean distance,
have some well known properties.
1. d(x, y)  0 for all x and y and d(x, y) = 0 only if
x = y. (Positive definiteness)
2. d(x, y) = d(y, x) for all x and y. (Symmetry)
3. d(x, z)  d(x, y) + d(y, z) for all points x, y, and z.
(Triangle Inequality)

where d(x, y) is the distance (dissimilarity) between

points (data objects), x and y.

 A distance that satisfies these properties is a

metric

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Common Properties of a Similarity

 Similarities, also have some well known

properties.

1. s(x, y) = 1 (or maximum similarity) only if x = y.

(does not always hold, e.g., cosine)
2. s(x, y) = s(y, x) for all x and y. (Symmetry)

where s(x, y) is the similarity between points (data

objects), x and y.

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Similarity Between Binary Vectors
 Common situation is that objects, x and y, have only
binary attributes

 Compute similarities using the following quantities

f01 = the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 1
f10 = the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 0
f00 = the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 0
f11 = the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 1

 Simple Matching and Jaccard Coefficients

SMC = number of matches / number of attributes
= (f11 + f00) / (f01 + f10 + f11 + f00)

J = number of 11 matches / number of non-zero attributes

= (f11) / (f01 + f10 + f11)
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SMC versus Jaccard: Example

x= 1000000000
y= 0000001001

f01 = 2 (the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 1)

f10 = 1 (the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 0)
f00 = 7 (the number of attributes where x was 0 and y was 0)
f11 = 0 (the number of attributes where x was 1 and y was 1)

SMC = (f11 + f00) / (f01 + f10 + f11 + f00)

= (0+7) / (2+1+0+7) = 0.7

J = (f11) / (f01 + f10 + f11) = 0 / (2 + 1 + 0) = 0

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Cosine Similarity

 If d1 and d2 are two document vectors, then

cos( d1, d2 ) = <d1,d2> / ||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where <d1,d2> indicates inner product or vector dot
product of vectors, d1 and d2, and || d || is the length of
vector d.
 Example:
d1 = 3 2 0 5 0 0 0 2 0 0
d2 = 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2
<d1, d2> = 3*1 + 2*0 + 0*0 + 5*0 + 0*0 + 0*0 + 0*0 + 2*1 + 0*0 + 0*2 = 5
| d1 || = (3*3+2*2+0*0+5*5+0*0+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)0.5 = (42) 0.5 = 6.481
|| d2 || = (1*1+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+0*0+1*1+0*0+2*2) 0.5 = (6) 0.5 = 2.449
cos(d1, d2
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Extended Jaccard Coefficient (Tanimoto)

 Variation of Jaccard for continuous or count

attributes
– Reduces to Jaccard for binary attributes

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Correlation measures the linear relationship between objects

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Visually Evaluating Correlation

Scatter plots
showing the
similarity from
–1 to 1.

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 Drawback of Correlation

 x = (-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3)

 y = (9, 4, 1, 0, 1, 4, 9)

yi = xi2

 mean(x) = 0, mean(y) = 4
 std(x) = 2.16, std(y) = 3.74

 corr = (-3)(5)+(-2)(0)+(-1)(-3)+(0)(-4)+(1)(-3)+(2)(0)+3(5) / ( 6 * 2.16 * 3.74 )

=0

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Comparison of Proximity Measures

 Domain of application
– Similarity measures tend to be specific to the type of attribute
and data
– Record data, images, graphs, sequences, 3D-protein
structure, etc. tend to have different measures
 However, one can talk about various properties that you
would like a proximity measure to have
– Symmetry is a common one
– Tolerance to noise and outliers is another
– Ability to find more types of patterns?
– Many others possible
 The measure must be applicable to the data and
produce results that agree with domain knowledge
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Information Based Measures

 Information theory is a well-developed and

fundamental disciple with broad applications

 Some similarity measures are based on

information theory
– Mutual information in various versions
– Maximal Information Coefficient (MIC) and related
measures
– General and can handle non-linear relationships
– Can be complicated and time intensive to compute

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Information and Probability

 Information relates to possible outcomes of an event

– transmission of a message, flip of a coin, or measurement
of a piece of data

 The more certain an outcome, the less information

that it contains and vice-versa
– For example, if a coin has two heads, then an outcome of
heads provides no information
– More quantitatively, the information is related the
probability of an outcome
 The smaller the probability of an outcome, the more information it
provides and vice-versa
– Entropy is the commonly used measure
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Entropy

 For
 
– a variable (event), X,
– with n possible values (outcomes), x1, x2 …, xn
– each outcome having probability, p1, p2 …, pn
– the entropy of X , H(X), is given by

 Entropy is between 0 and log2n and is measured in

bits
– Thus, entropy is a measure of how many bits it takes
to represent an observation of X on average
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Entropy Examples

  For a coin with probability p of heads and

probability q = 1 – p of tails

– For p= 0.5, q = 0.5 (fair coin) H = 1

– For p = 1 or q = 1, H = 0

 What is the entropy of a fair four-sided die?

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Entropy for Sample Data: Example

Hair Color Count p -plog2p

Black 75 0.75 0.3113
Brown 15 0.15 0.4105
Blond 5 0.05 0.2161
Red 0 0.00 0
Other 5 0.05 0.2161
Total 100 1.0 1.1540

Maximum entropy is log25 = 2.3219

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Entropy for Sample Data

  Suppose we have
– a number of observations (m) of some attribute, X,
e.g., the hair color of students in the class,
– where there are n different possible values
– And the number of observation in the ith category is mi
– Then, for this sample

 For continuous data, the calculation is harder

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Mutual Information

 Information

  one variable provides about another

Formally, , where

H(X,Y) is the joint entropy of X and Y,

Where pij is the probability that the ith value of X and the jth value of Y
occur together

 For discrete variables, this is easy to compute

 Maximum mutual information for discrete variables is

log2(min( nX, nY ), where nX (nY) is the number of values of X (Y)
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 Mutual Information Example

Student Count p -plog2p Student Grade Count p -plog2p

Status Status
Undergrad 45 0.45 0.5184
Undergrad A 5 0.05 0.2161
Grad 55 0.55 0.4744
Total 100 1.00 0.9928 Undergrad B 30 0.30 0.5211

Undergrad C 10 0.10 0.3322

Grade Count p -plog2p Grad A 30 0.30 0.5211

A 35 0.35 0.5301 Grad B 20 0.20 0.4644

B 50 0.50 0.5000 Grad C 5 0.05 0.2161
C 15 0.15 0.4105 Total 100 1.00 2.2710
Total 100 1.00 1.4406

Mutual information of Student Status and Grade = 0.9928 + 1.4406 - 2.2710 = 0.1624

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Maximal Information Coefficient
 Reshef, David N., Yakir A. Reshef, Hilary K. Finucane, Sharon R. Grossman, Gilean McVean, Peter
J. Turnbaugh, Eric S. Lander, Michael Mitzenmacher, and Pardis C. Sabeti. "Detecting novel
associations in large data sets." science 334, no. 6062 (2011): 1518-1524.

 Applies mutual information to two continuous variables

 Consider the possible binnings of the variables into
discrete categories
– nX × nY ≤ N0.6 where
nX is the number of values of X
nY is the number of values of Y
N is the number of samples (observations, data objects)
 Compute the mutual information
– Normalized by log2(min( nX, nY )
 Take the highest value
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General Approach for Combining Similarities

 Sometimes attributes are of many different types, but an

overall similarity is needed.
1: For the kth attribute, compute a similarity, sk(x, y), in the
range [0, 1].
2: Define an indicator variable, k, for the kth attribute as
follows:
k = 0 if the kth attribute is an asymmetric attribute and
both objects have a value of 0, or if one of the objects
has a missing value for the kth attribute
k = 1 otherwise
3. Compute

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Using Weights to Combine Similarities

  May not want to treat all attributes the same.

– Use non-negative weights 

 Can also define a weighted form of distance

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Density

 Measures the degree to which data objects are close to

each other in a specified area
 The notion of density is closely related to that of proximity
 Concept of density is typically used for clustering and
anomaly detection
 Examples:
– Euclidean density
 Euclidean density = number of points per unit volume
– Probability density
 Estimate what the distribution of the data looks like
– Graph-based density
 Connectivity

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Euclidean Density: Grid-based Approach

 Simplest approach is to divide region into a

number of rectangular cells of equal volume and
define density as # of points the cell contains

Grid-based density. Counts for each cell.

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Euclidean Density: Center-Based

 Euclidean density is the number of points within a

specified radius of the point

Illustration of center-based density.

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Data Preprocessing

 Aggregation
 Sampling
 Dimensionality Reduction
 Feature subset selection
 Feature creation
 Discretization and Binarization
 Attribute Transformation

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Aggregation

 Combining two or more attributes (or objects) into

a single attribute (or object)

 Purpose
– Data reduction
 Reduce the number of attributes or objects
– Change of scale
 Cities aggregated into regions, states, countries, etc.
 Days aggregated into weeks, months, or years
– More “stable” data
 Aggregated data tends to have less variability

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Example: Precipitation in Australia

 This example is based on precipitation in

Australia from the period 1982 to 1993.
The next slide shows
– A histogram for the standard deviation of average
monthly precipitation for 3,030 0.5◦ by 0.5◦ grid cells in
Australia, and
– A histogram for the standard deviation of the average
yearly precipitation for the same locations.
 The average yearly precipitation has less
variability than the average monthly precipitation.
 All precipitation measurements (and their
standard deviations) are in centimeters.
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Example: Precipitation in Australia …

Variation of Precipitation in Australia

Standard Deviation of Average Standard Deviation of

Monthly Precipitation Average Yearly Precipitation
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Sampling
 Sampling is the main technique employed for data
reduction.
– It is often used for both the preliminary investigation of
the data and the final data analysis.

 Statisticians often sample because obtaining the

entire set of data of interest is too expensive or time
consuming.

 Sampling is typically used in data mining because

processing the entire set of data of interest is too
expensive or time consuming.

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Sampling …

 The key principle for effective sampling is the

following:

– Using a sample will work almost as well as using the

entire data set, if the sample is representative

– A sample is representative if it has approximately the

same properties (of interest) as the original set of data

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Sample Size

8000 points 2000 Points 500 Points

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Types of Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
– There is an equal probability of selecting any particular item
– Sampling without replacement
 As each item is selected, it is removed from the
population
– Sampling with replacement
 Objects are not removed from the population as they are
selected for the sample.
 In sampling with replacement, the same object can be
picked up more than once
 Stratified sampling
– Split the data into several partitions; then draw random
samples from each partition

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Sample Size
 What sample size is necessary to get at least one
object from each of 10 equal-sized groups.

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 Curse of Dimensionality

 When dimensionality
increases, data becomes
increasingly sparse in the
space that it occupies

 Definitions of density and

distance between points,
which are critical for
clustering and outlier
detection, become less
meaningful • Randomly generate 500 points
• Compute difference between max and
min distance between any pair of points
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Dimensionality Reduction

 Purpose:
– Avoid curse of dimensionality
– Reduce amount of time and memory required by data
mining algorithms
– Allow data to be more easily visualized
– May help to eliminate irrelevant features or reduce
noise

 Techniques
– Principal Components Analysis (PCA)
– Singular Value Decomposition
– Others: supervised and non-linear techniques

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Dimensionality Reduction: PCA

 Goal is to find a projection that captures the

largest amount of variation in data
x2

x1
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Dimensionality Reduction: PCA

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Feature Subset Selection

 Another way to reduce dimensionality of data

 Redundant features
– Duplicate much or all of the information contained in
one or more other attributes
– Example: purchase price of a product and the amount
of sales tax paid
 Irrelevant features
– Contain no information that is useful for the data
mining task at hand
– Example: students' ID is often irrelevant to the task of
predicting students' GPA
 Many techniques developed, especially for
classification
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Feature Creation

 Create new attributes that can capture the

important information in a data set much more
efficiently than the original attributes

 Three general methodologies:

– Feature extraction
 Example: extracting edges from images
– Feature construction
 Example: dividing mass by volume to get density
– Mapping data to new space
 Example: Fourier and wavelet analysis

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Mapping Data to a New Space

 Fourier and wavelet transform

Frequency

Two Sine Waves + Noise Frequency

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Discretization

 Discretization is the process of converting a

continuous attribute into an ordinal attribute
– A potentially infinite number of values are mapped into
a small number of categories
– Discretization is commonly used in classification
– Many classification algorithms work best if both
the independent and dependent variables have
only a few values
– We give an illustration of the usefulness of
discretization using the Iris data set

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Iris Sample Data Set

 Iris Plant data set.

– Can be obtained from the UCI Machine Learning Repository
http://www.ics.uci.edu/~mlearn/MLRepository.html
– From the statistician Douglas Fisher
– Three flower types (classes):
 Setosa
 Versicolour
 Virginica

– Four (non-class) attributes

 Sepal width and length
 Petal width and length Virginica. Robert H. Mohlenbrock. USDA
NRCS. 1995. Northeast wetland flora: Field
office guide to plant species. Northeast National
Technical Center, Chester, PA. Courtesy of
USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute.
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Discretization: Iris Example

Petal width low or petal length low implies Setosa.

Petal width medium or petal length medium implies Versicolour.
Petal width high Introduction
or petal length
to Data high implies
Mining, Virginica.
2nd Edition
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Discretization: Iris Example …

 How can we tell what the best discretization is?

– Unsupervised discretization: find breaks in the data
values
50
 Example:
Petal Length 40

30

Counts 20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8
Petal Length

– Supervised discretization: Use class labels to find

breaks
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Discretization Without Using Class Labels

Data consists of four groups of points and two outliers. Data is one-
dimensional, but a random y component is added to reduce overlap.

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Discretization Without Using Class Labels

Equal interval width approach used to obtain 4 values.

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Discretization Without Using Class Labels

Equal frequency approach used to obtain 4 values.

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Discretization Without Using Class Labels

K-means approach to obtain 4 values.

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Binarization

 Binarization maps a continuous or categorical

attribute into one or more binary variables

 Typically used for association analysis

 Often convert a continuous attribute to a

categorical attribute and then convert a
categorical attribute to a set of binary attributes
– Association analysis needs asymmetric binary
attributes
– Examples: eye color and height measured as
{low, medium, high}
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Attribute Transformation
 An attribute transform is a function that maps the
entire set of values of a given attribute to a new set
of replacement values such that each old value can
be identified with one of the new values
– Simple functions: xk, log(x), ex, |x|
– Normalization
 Refers to various techniques to adjust to differences
among attributes in terms of frequency of occurrence,
mean, variance, range
 Take out unwanted, common signal, e.g., seasonality

– In statistics, standardization refers to subtracting off the

means and dividing by the standard deviation

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Example: Sample Time Series of Plant Growth
Minneapolis

Net Primary
Production (NPP)
is a measure of
plant growth used
by ecosystem
scientists.

Correlations between time series

Correlations between time series
Minneapolis Atlanta Sao Paolo
Minneapolis 1.0000 0.7591 -0.7581
Atlanta 0.7591 1.0000 -0.5739
Sao Paolo -0.7581 -0.5739 1.0000
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 Seasonality Accounts for Much Correlation
Minneapolis
Normalized using
monthly Z Score:
Subtract off monthly
mean and divide by
monthly standard
deviation

Correlations between time series

Correlations between time series
Minneapolis Atlanta Sao Paolo
Minneapolis 1.0000 0.0492 0.0906
Atlanta 0.0492 1.0000 -0.0154
Sao Paolo 0.0906 -0.0154 1.0000

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