LECTURE # 4

CONVERSE, INVERSE, AND CONTRAPOSITIVE

Implication: pq
Inverse: ~p  ~q
Converse: qp
Contrapositive: ~q  ~p
NOTE
1. An implication is logically equivalent to it’s contrapositive.
2. The converse and inverse of an implication are logically equivalent.
3. An implication is not equivalent to it’s converse.

We have already seen that pq is not the same as q p. It may
happen, however, that both p q and q p are true. For example, if p=
“1+1= 2" and q=“2+2 = 4," then p q and q p are both true because p
and q are both true.
Similarly, if p= “1+1= 3" and q=“2+2 = 5," then p q and q p are
both true because p and q are both false.

EXAMPLE

If you work hard you get good grades.

w = “You work hard”, g = “You get good grades.
w  g = If w then g
= “If you work hard you get good grades”
g  w = if g then w = g only if w
= “You get good grades only if you work hard” 1
 BICONDITIONAL

If p and q are statement variables, the biconditional of p and q is “p if, and

only if, q” and is denoted pq.
It is true if both p and q have the same truth values and false if p and q have
opposite truth values.
The words if and only if are sometimes abbreviated iff.
The double headed arrow " " is the biconditional operator.
NOTE: The biconditional of two statements is false only when both p and q
have different Truth Values. That is one have truth value T and other have
Truth value F. Equivalently we can say that biconditional of two statements
p and q is True only when both p and q have same Truth Values.

TRUTH TABLE

p q p q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

From the Truth Table of pq it is quite clear that pq have F where both
p and q have different values and where both p and q have the same values
we have T in the column of pq. That is biconditional is true when p and q
have same truth value.

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 EXAMPLES

True or false?
1. “1+1 = 3 if and only if earth is flat”
The above biconditional has truth value TRUE. Because The both the
statements have the same truth value, that is 1+1 = 3 is false as well as
earth is flat. So their biconditional is has Truth value True.
(Remember that biconditional is true when both statements have the
same truth values)
2. “Sky is blue iff 1 = 0”
The above biconditional has truth value FALSE because both
statements have different truth values. Sky is blue has truth value T
and 1 = 0 has truth value F.
3. “Milk is white iff birds lay eggs”
TRUE
4. “33 is divisible by 4 if and only if horse has four legs”
FALSE
5. “x > 5 iff x2 > 25”
FALSE

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 pq  (pq)(qp)

p q pq pq qp (pq)(qp)

T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

same truth values

REMARK

For the phrasing "p if and only if q,", remember that "p if q“ means qp
while "p only if q" means p q.
That’s why pq is logically equivalent to (pq)(qp) and this
also justifies the name of the operator  as biconditional.

REPHRASING BICONDITIONAL

pq is also expressed as:

“p is necessary and sufficient for q”
“if p then q, and conversely”
“p is equivalent to q”
Notice that pq is logically equivalent to qp, so we can reverse p and q
in the phrasings above.

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 EXERCISE

Rephrase the following propositions in the form “p if and only if q” in

English.
1. If it is hot outside you buy an ice cream cone, and if you buy an
ice cream cone it is hot outside.
Sol You buy an ice cream cone if and only if it is hot outside.
2. For you to win the contest it is necessary and sufficient that you
have the only winning ticket.
Sol You win the contest if and only if you hold the only winning ticket.

3. If you read the news paper every day, you will be informed and
conversely.
Sol You will be informed if and only if you read the news paper every day.
4. It rains if it is a weekend day, and it is a weekend day if it rains.
Sol It rains if and only if it is a weekend day.
5. The train runs late on exactly those days when I take it.
Sol The train runs late if and only if it is a day I take the train.
6. This number is divisible by 6 precisely when it is divisible by both
2 and 3.
Sol This number is divisible by 6 if and only if it is divisible by both 2 and
3.

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 TRUTH TABLE FOR
(pq)  (~ q ~ p)

p q pq ~q ~p ~ q ~ p (pq)  (~ q ~ p)
T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Here in the above table note that all the values in the columns
of (pq) and(~ q ~ p) are the same so in their biconditional we have
T and we can say that the statement form (pq)  (~ q ~ p) is a
tautology. But it does not mean that all the biconditional statements are
Tautologies as in the next example we have (pq)(rq) is not a
tautology as shown by the Truth table below.

TRUTH TABLE FOR

(pq)(rq)

p q r pq rq (pq)(rq)

T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F F T
T F F F T F
F T T F T F
F T F F F T
F F T T F F
F F F T T T
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 HIERARCHY OF OPERATIONS
FOR LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

1. ~(negation)
2.  (conjunction),  (disjunction)
3.  (conditional), (biconditional)
In the next table we will use the hierarchy of operations
TRUTH TABLE FOR
p  ~r qr

Here p  ~ r q  r means (p  (~ r)) (q  r)

p q r ~r p~r qr p  ~r qr

T T T F F T F
T T F T T T T

T F T F F T F

T F F T T F F

F T T F F T F

F T F T F T F

F F T F F T F
F F F T F F T

From the last column of the table we can easily see that (pq)(rq) is
not a Tautology.(Remember the definition of tautology, a statement is
tautology if it has only its Truth values as “True” regardless the values of its
constituents statements.) 7
 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
INVOLVING BICONDITIONAL

Show that ~pq and p~q are logically equivalent

p q ~p ~q ~pq p~q
T T F F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F F

EXERCISE

Show that ~(pq) and pq are logically equivalent

Remember the logical connective  which we call “Exclusive or”.
Exclusive or has false truth value when both statements are true or when
both has truth value false.

p q pq ~(pq) pq

T T F T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F T T

Now note that the entries in the last two columns are same hence the
corresponding statement forms are Logically equivalent.

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 LAWS OF LOGIC

Given any statement variables p, q and r, and a contradiction c, the

following logical equivalences hold:

1. Commutative Law: pqqp

2. Implication Laws: p q  ~p  q
 ~(p  ~q)
3. Exportation Law: (p  q)r  p (q r)
4. Equivalence: p  q  (p q)(q p)
5. Reductio ad absurdum p q  (p  ~q) c

APPLYING LAWS OF LOGIC

Rewrite the statement forms without using the symbols  or 

1. p~qr 2. (pr)(q r)
SOLUTION
1. p~qr  (p~q)r order of operations
~(p~q)  r implication law

2. (pr)(q r)  (~p  r)(~q  r) implication law

 [(~p  r) (~q  r)]  [(~q  r) (~p  r)]
equivalence of biconditional
 [~(~p  r)  (~q  r)]  [~(~q  r)  (~p  r)]
implication law
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 EXERCISE

Rewrite the statement form ~p  q  r  ~q to a logically equivalent form

that uses only ~ and 
SOLUTION
STATEMENT REASON
~p  q  r  ~q Given statement form
 (~p  q)  (r  ~q) Order of operations
 ~[(~p  q)  ~ (r  ~q)] Implication law pq  ~(p~ q)
 ~[~(p  ~q)  (~r  q)] De Morgan’s law

Show that ~(pq)  p is a tautology without using truth tables.

SOLUTION
STATEMENT REASON
~(pq)  p Given statement form
 ~[~(p  ~q)]  p Implication law pq  ~(p  ~q)
 (p  ~q)  p Double negation law
 ~(p  ~q)  p Implication law pq  ~p  q
 (~p  q)  p De Morgan’s law
 (q  ~p)  p Commutative law of 
 q  (~p  p) Associative law of 
qt Negation law
t Universal bound law
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 EXERCISE

Suppose that p and q are statements so that pq is false. Find the truth
values of each of the following:
1. ~p q
2. pq
3. qp
SOLUTION
1. TRUE
2. TRUE
3. FALSE

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