Chapter 3- Steam Generators

6.1 Introduction
• Steam generators are used to produce steam at desired pressure, temperature and mass flow rate
• Steam generators are used in both fossil- and nuclear-fuel electric-generating power plants.
• A steam generator is a complex combination of
• economizer,
• boiler,
• superheater,
• reheater, and
• air preheater.
• In addition, it has various auxiliaries, such as:
• stokers,
• pulverizers,
• burners,
• fans, emission control equipment,
• stack, and
• ash-handling equipment
• The term “boiler” is often used to mean the whole steam generator in the literature
• Steam generators are classified in different ways. From the point of view of applications,
they are:
• Utility steam generators
• Industrial steam generators
• Marine steam generators
Utility Steam Generators
• Utility steam generators are those used by utilities for electric-power generating plants
and are our main concern of this course
• Modern utility steam generators are essentially of two basic kinds:
• Subcritical water-tube drum type and
• Supercritical once-through type.
• The subcritical steam generators are
• water tube-drum type and
• usually operate between 130 and 180 bar (13 – 18 MPa) steam pressure.
• The supercritical steam generators are
• drum less once through type and
• operate at 240 bar pressure or higher. (Note that Critical Pressure = 221.2 bar)
• Typical S/G in power plants have following specifications:
• Steam pressure 170 – 180 bar Water tube drum type
• Produce steam at about 540 – 560 °C temperature
• One or two stage reheating
• Capacity of 120 to 1300 kg/s for 125 to 1300 MWe Power Plants
• Fuels
• Coal in pulverized form
• Oil – its use is gradually reducing due to rising costs – still a lot of oil being used.
• Natural gas - Gas, however, is a clean burning, relatively pollution-free fuel
Industrial Steam Generators
• Industrial steam generators are used by process industry, such as sugar mills, paper mills,
and other industries.
• These include water-tube pulverized coal units similar to those used by utilities, but they
also may bum stoker (lump) coal, oil, or natural gas, as well as municipal refuse and
processed wastes or by-products.
• Some are heat-recovery type that use waste heat from industrial processes.
• They may also be of the fire-tube variety,
• Industrial steam generators usually do not produce superheated steam.
• They usually produce saturated steam, or even only hot water (in which case they should
not be called steam generators).
• They operate at pressures ranging from 5 to 105 bar with steam capacities up to 125 kg/s.
Marine steam generators
• Marine steam generators are used in many marine ships and ocean liners driven by steam
turbines.
• They are usually oil-fired.
• They produce superheated steam at about 60-65 bar and 540 °C,
Other Classification
• Other classification is based on Relative flow of flue gases (products of combustion) and
water (working medium)
• Major types of above boilers are:
1) Fire-tube boilers
2) Water-tube boilers
3) Natural-circulation boilers
4) Controlled-circulation boilers
6.2 Fire Tube Boilers
Fire Tube Boilers are of two types:
a) Externally Fired Boiler
b) Pressurized Package Type Boiler
Fire Tube Boiler
• The fire-tube boiler is a special form of the shell-type boiler, which are in use since 18th century
• They are still used in industrial plants to produce saturated steam at the upper limits of about 1
bar pressure and steam capacity of 6.2 kg/s.
• Figure shows an externally fired fire-tube boiler in which the furnace is outside the boiler
shell.
• The products of combustion (flue gases) flow through the tubes which are immersed in the shell
containing water.
• A fire-tube boiler is so named because the products of combustion pass through its tubes or
flues, which are surrounded by water.
• Coal is entered manually by shovels on to the grate by opening the fire-door.
Safety Valve

Fusible Plug
• To protect the boiler from bursting, a fusible plug made up of “a low melting point alloy (lead-
based)” is installed on the roof of the crown in the furnace. (Over Temp. Protection)
• If the water-level in the shell falls below a certain level the fusible plug melts due to overheating
and water pours down through the hole formed to put-off the fire. (Level Protection)
• There is a spring-loaded safety-valve provided to keep the boiler pressure within the safety
limit.
• The spring is set in such a way that the upward thrust of steam against the lid is balanced by the
downward thrust of the spring.
• If the operating steam pressure exceeds this value, the upward thrust of steam will then be
greater than the downward spring thrust and the difference will force open the lid upward, as a
result of which steam will be released with a hissing sound, the steam pressure inside the shell
will go down till the lid is forced down to be back on its seat.
• Steam is taken out at the required rate by opening the stop valve. Similarly, the water flow to
the boiler is also maintained
• Air flow from below the grate is regulated by operating dampers according to the requirement
of combustion.
• An oil-fired Pressurized Package Type Boiler is shown in Figure 2.
• It is an internally fired, fire-tube boiler, since the furnace is with in the cylindrical shell.
• Oil is filtered, adequately heated either by electricity or steam, and is then fed through the
burner
• Air is supplied by an Forced Draft (FD) Fan.
• Excess oil is returned to the main feedline.
• Combustion occurs in a horizontal corrugated flue, and the combustion gases flow
through the tubes in two passes till they are let out through a chimney to atmosphere
• The corrugations of the flue increase strength and help in allowing thermal expansion
and contraction, and also in cracking and removing the soots deposited.
• The wet steam taken from the top, flows through a bank of coils for superheating and the
superheated steam is taken out as desired.
• The gases gel cooled as they flow through the tubes and water is heated enough to form
steam.
• The wet steam taken from the top flows through a bank of coils for superheating and the
superheated steam is taken out as desired.
• Since the pressure inside the furnace is above atmospheric, caution is required to
make the casing sealed against leakage. If it is not tightly sealed, hot gases will
ex-filtrate causing energy losses and polluting the atmosphere
Figure 2
An oil-fire tube package boiler
SOOT
• Since the pressure inside the furnace is above atmospheric, caution is required to
make the casing sealed against leakage. If it is not tightly sealed, hot gases will
ex-filtrate causing energy losses and polluting the atmosphere
• 
Advantages;
1. It is highly compact. A large surface area of heat transfer is provided in a small volume. The furnace
volume is less since it is pressurized.
2. No ID fan is required. A short chimney is provided just for disposal of flue gases,
3. The entire unit is mostly fabricated in the factory itself. It is transported to the site and installed
there with relative ease.
4. It occupies less space
Disadvantages
• The major shortcoming of a fire-tube boiler is that definite size and pressure limitations are inherent
in its basic design, i.e. the maximum size of the unit and the maximum operating pressure are limited.
• The tensile stress on the drum wall is a function of the drum diameter and the internal pressure given
by:

Where:
σ = tensile stress, N/m2
p = gauge pressure, N/m2
d = internal diameter of shell, (m)
t = thickness of wall (m)
6.3 Water Tube Boilers
• As mentioned earlier, with higher steam pressures and capacities, fire-tube boilers would
need large-diameter shells
• Such extreme pressure and temperature would result in stresses that the wall thicknesses
would become very large.
• In water tube boilers, water flows through the tubes and flue gases flow outside
• Since, the pressure is in the tubes, they are capable of withstanding extreme pressures of
the modem steam generators
• Water Tube boilers are of following designs:
1) Straight Tube Boilers
2) Bent Tube Boilers
6.3.1 Straight-Tube Boiler
• The water-tube boiler went through several stages of development. The earliest design
employed straight tubes rolled into headers at each end, since straight tubes could be
made, installed and replaced easily.
• The tubes were of 75 to 100 mm O.D., inclined upward at about 15° to the horizontal and
staggered.
• Nearly saturated water leaving the drum flowed through one header, called the
downcomer, into the tubes.
• While flowing upward in the tubes some of this water on being heated by flue gases
flowing outside get transformed to vapour and the two-phase water-steam mixture went
back to the drum through the other header, called the riser.
• The density of nearly saturated water in the downcomer was larger than the density of the
two-phase mixture in the riser and this density difference caused natural circulation.
• The drum was arranged either parallel to the tubes (the longitudinal drum, Fig. 6.3a) or
perpendicular to them (the cross drum, Fig. 6.3b).
• The Feedwater from the Feedwater heater flowed to the drum, which supplied saturated
steam to the superheater.
• The lower end of the downcomer was connected to a mud drum, which collected
sediments from the circulating water and discharged through blowdown.
• A single longitudinal drum, about 1.2 m in diameter, could accommodate only a limited
number of tubes and hence a limiting heating surface.
• Depending on capacity, more than one drum could be installed in parallel.
• To ensure maximum exposure of tubes to the hot flue gases, baffles were installed across
the tubes in both kinds of boilers to permit up to three gas passes.
• Longitudinal drum boilers were limited to low pressures (12—23 bar) and steam
capacities (0.63-10 kg/s), having heating surfaces of 93-930 m2
• Cross-drum boilers could accommodate many more tubes than longitudinal drum boilers
because of their geometry and were built with heating surfaces of 93-2200 m2, pressures
12-100 bar and steam capacities of 0.63-63 kg/s
• There are two major disadvantages of Straight Tube boilers:
• Circulation is sluggish due to low head, and limited steam disengaging surface made
inadequate separation of steam and water reducing steaming rate
• They have less accessibility and poor inspection capability– The maintenance requires
a lot of time and effort.
6.3a a Longitudinal Drum
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6.3 b – Cross Drum
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6.3.2 Bent-tube boilers
• Introduced in the 1880 – It is also a WATER TUBE BOILER
• Offered many advantages over the straight-tube ones, the notable among them being greater
accessibility for inspection, cleaning, and maintenance, and ability to operate at higher
steaming rates and to deliver drier steam
• In a bent-tube boiler, the tubes were so bent that they entered and left the drums radially.
• As an example, a four-drum boiler is shown in Figure – In the figure, Drum 1 is on extreme
right, Drum 2 in the middle, and Drum 3 on extreme left.
• Drum 4, commonly known as “Mud Drum” is connected to all the three drums.
• The drums 1 to 3 are connected with each other, with “Equalizing Tubes” on upper side and
“Leveling Tubes” at lower side.
• Equalizing Tubes, ensure equal pressure in drums 1, 2 and 3, whereas, Leveling Tubes keep
equal level in the drums.
• Feed water enters Drum 3, and travels to Mud Drum through “Down Comers”.
• Foreign particles are removed from mud drum by chemical addition through “blow-down”
valve.
• Water from Mud Drum is also circulated to Drum 1, through water tubes in the walls,
which also cools the walls of the boilers and help in utilizing that heat.
• Fire box is on the extreme right (lower side), from where the combustion gases flow
upward from the furnace through the first bank of tubes connecting the front steam
drum (Drum 1) and the mud drum, and through the superheater,
• Water converts to steam and goes to Drum 1 and 2.
• Further steam is extracted from Drum 2, and sent to super heater. The super heated
steam is sent to Turbine.
• The gases then flowed past an economizer in counterflow arrangement. .
• All three drums had their steam and water regions interconnected at top and bottom.
The tubes were typically 75-77 mm in OD and spaced 125-175 mm on centres, for easy
replacement of defective tubes without removing neighboring tubes.
• Note that Safety valve is mounted on Drum 1, Pressure gauge a Drum2 and Feed check
valve at Drum 3.
Bent Tube Boilers
Further Improvements
• Lining of interior wall: More recent designs of Stirling
boilers used water cooled furnace walls by lining the
interior of the walls with tubes carrying the same boiler
water, where partial boiling of water occurs.
• Figure shows a schematic of a natural circulation four-
drum Stirling boiler.
• Water flows downwards from the mud drum to headers
feeding the tubes lining the walls of the radiant furnace.
• The steam-water mixture rises up due to low density and
goes to the steam drum at the upper right.
• The steam is separated and flows to the central drum,
where it is sent to superheater
• Remaining water enters the drum at the left and mixes
with the saturated liquid in the left and central drum. The
cooled liquid flows down to the mud drum.
• The cycle repeats
 1. Steam Delivery Drum
2. Superheat Steam Transfer Tubes
3. Superheater Inlet Header
4. Superheate Tubes
5. First-pass Tubes
6. Second-pass Tubes

Natural Circulation, four drum Stirling Boiler

Modern Steam Generators
• The four-drum Stirling boiler was superseded by a simpler design containing:
• two-drum design in which the steam drum was directly above the water drum with
one bank of bent tubes to the front and another to the rear.
• Two-drum boiler had a single gas-path.
• The Stirling boiler was generally capable of meeting conditions of rapidly varying loads
and was adaptable to various fuels
• It was employed in both stationary and marine applications
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Modern Pulverized Coal Steam Generators
• The advent of the water-cooled furnace walls, called water walls, eventually led to the
integration of
• furnace,
• economizer,
• boiler,
• superheater,
• reheater, and
• air preheater .
• Water cooling is also used for superheater and economizer compartment walls and various
other components, such as screens, dividing walls, etc.
• The use of a large number of feedwater heaters (up to seven or eight) means a smaller
economizer, and the high pressure means a smaller boiler surface because the latent heat
of vaporization decreases rapidly with pressure.
• Thus a modern high pressure steam generator requires more superheating and reheating
surface and less boiler surface than older units.
• Beyond about 1500 psia ( about 10 bar), the water tubes represent the entire boiler surface
and no other tubes, such as those seen in the earlier designs of the previous two sections,
are required.
• Selected components of modem steam generators are shown in Figure 6.6
Fig. 6.6 (b) Typical wall-fired
boiler cross-section with divided
convection pass
Fig. 6.6 (b) Typical wall-fired boiler cross-section
with divided convection pass
6.3.3 Heat Absorption in Water-Tube Boilers
• In a water-tube boiler, feedwater is heated in three kinds of heal exchangers, i.e.,
economizer, evaporator (downcomer-riser circuit) and superheaters
• Feedwater from the heater enters the economiser where it is heated by the outgoing flue
gases till it is a saturated liquid at that pressure and then it is fed to the drum.
• Saturated water falls through the downcomer into the bottom header and moves up
through the riser where water is partially boiled back into the drum (Fig. 6.7(a)).
Saturated steam from the drum goes to the superheaters for being heated to the desired
temperature.
• If the pressure drop during the entire heating process and any external heat loss are
neglected, the line 1-4 represents the heating process in T-s diagram (Fig. 6.7(b)).
• For each kg of steam formed, the heats absorbed in the economiser (in the liquid phase),
in the evaporator (liquid to vapour transition or the latent heal of vaporization), and in the
superheater (in the vapour or gas phase) are given by
Fig. 6.7(a) Heat absorption in a water-tube boiler
Fig 6.7(b) Heat absorption in different heat exchangers of a water tube boiler
• If a reheater is used, the fraction of the total heat absorbed in the reheater can similarly be
estimated.
• The use of a large number of feedwater heaters (up to seven or eight) means a smaller
economiser, and a high pressure means a smaller boiler surface (risers) because the latent
heat of vaporization decreases
• Thus, a modern high pressure steam generator requires more superheating and reheating
surfaces and less boiler surface than older units, The fraction of total heat absorbed in
superheaters alone may be as high as 60% in a modern boiler
6.3.4 Circulation
• The flow of water and steam within the boiler circuit is called circulation
• An adequate circulation is required to carry away the heat from the furnace.
• If circulation is caused by density difference, the boiler is said to have natural circulation.
• Full boiling to 100 percent quality in the tubes is avoided because it would lead to tube
burnout or failure as a result of departure from nucleate boiling (DNB).
• Natural circulation is dependent upon the difference between these two densities and the
height of the drum above the bottom headers.
• Most large steam-generator boilers have sufficient natural-circulation driving force and
are called natural-circulation boilers
• Some require additional help by pumping the single-phase flow and are called controlled-
or forced-circulation boilers.
•• For
  a number of years, forced circulation was favored over
natural circulation, but, recently the water tubes in high-
heat-absorbing areas of the furnace were provided with such
devices as internal twisters and springs that would break the
vapor film and thus inhibit or retard the onset of DNB.
• Modem large steam-generator boilers can now be designed
with natural circulation
• Natural-circulation driving forces are explained with the
simplified flow diagram
• The driving pressure caused by natural circulation,∆pd, is
given by:

∆p = driving pressure, N/m2, Pa

ρD = density of saturated water in the down comer, kg/m3
ρm = Average density of steam-water in riser kg/m3
H= Height of drum above bottom header m
••  ρm, may be taken as the arithmetic mean of the densities at the bottom and top of the
riser, or

• Now ρbottom = ρD and ρtop = ρD and vtop can be determined from steam table

• Where xtop is the quality of the mixture at the top of the riser and is often referred to as
the top dryness fraction (TDF).
• The maximum height of the furnace (H) is fixed by the rate of burning of fuel and the
heat release rate.
• For a certain H,
• Higher is the density difference, more will be the pressure head available for natural
circulation
• However, the density difference decreases as pressure increases why??
• From the Figure, you can see at high pressure, specific volume vf is very close to vg
• At about 180 bar the density difference is so small, that we need to use a pump for circulation
(forced circulation)
•• In
  modern boilers, risers installed all around the four walls of the furnace act as cooling
tubes or a water wall and carry away the heat from the furnace at the same rate at which
heat is released in it by the burning of fuel.
• For this reason, adequate circulation must be provided in the circuit
• A new term is “Circulation Ratio”, is introduced, which can be defined as ratio of flow
rate of saturated water in down comers to the Flow rate of steam released from the drum
i.e.

• In other words “It refers to the amount of saturated water to be circulated through the
downcomer-riser circuit per kg of steam released from the drum”
• Although circulation, in individual tubes is different, depending upon heat the tube
receives, however, circulation ratio should not be less than 6 and greater than 25 in any
tube. i.e. 6 kg of saturated water for 1 kg of steam produced
• Less circulation ratio, will result in accumulation of heat and consequently tube damage.
• Higher Circulation Ratio, will decrease the effective utilization of tubes (less efficiency)
6.3.5 The Steam Drum
• The steam drum is provided in all modem steam generators, in which feedwater from the
economizer is fed
• In the drum, saturated steam is separated from the boiling water and the remaining water
is recirculated through downcomer as discussed
• The drum may also be used for (1) chemical water treatment and (2) blowdown to reduce
solids in the water.
• The volume of the drum must be sufficient to:
• accommodate water level changes due by load changes (assisted by proper steam
generator controls) and
• prevent a dangerously “low level” or
• “carryover” of water toward the superheater/turbine.
• Carryover would cause, accumulation of solids in the super-heater tubes (scaling)
• This would result in poor heat transfer, increased temperature of tubes, since the tubes are
cooled due to water flow. Failure of flow will result in distortion or burnout, of tubes
• Carryover of solids in steam, may lead to deposition of solids on turbine blades (the most
troublesome being silica deposits, which are not easily removed by water washing)
• The most important steam-drum function is separating the
steam from the boiling water
• The simplest method is Gravity Separation. Figure (a)
• Gravity separation is possible if the steam velocity leaving the
water surface is low (1 m/s)
• At this speed, steam bubbles separate naturally without
entraining water droplets, and solids which carryover in the
steam/water mixture.
• This is referred to as “carryover” and is automatically avoided
at low velocity
Factors affecting Gravity Separation
• Density Difference in steam and saturated water– so at high
pressures, gravity separation is not effective.
• Position/location of downcomers and riser nozzles.
• Therefore, gravity separation is effective at low pressures, as
well as low capacity service
• In modern high-capacity, high-pressure boilers,
mechanical separation assists gravity separation
• Separation of steam and water is done by (a)
baffles, (b) screens and (c) cyclones, housed
inside the drum
• These are generally considered part of the boiler
and are called “DRUM INTERNALS”
• Baffle plates act as primary separators.
• They change or reverse the steam flow direction,
thus assisting gravity separation, and act as impact
plates that cause water to drain off

• Screens made of wire mesh act as secondary separators where the individual wires attract and
intercept the fine droplets, just as fabric filters attract dust from gases.
• The accumulating water drops then fall by gravity back to the main body of water
• At high pressures, where the density difference is
between water and steam is low, hence
separation effectively diminishes
• In this case centrifugal forces, which are much
greater than the gravity forces, are used,
• Cyclone separators utilize the centrifugal forces
for separation of two-phase mixture, which is
entered tangentially to direct the water downward
and to make the steam flow upward,
• The steam then goes through the zig-zag
path in corrugated plates, called the scrubber or
dryer, on the way out to help remove the last
traces of moisture.

• Finally, perforated plates or screens under the drum exit provide the final drying action.
• Drum internals of a controlled circulation boiler are shown in Fig. (Next Slide)
Cyclone Separators
• In Primary Separation most of the water is removed. Carryover or carry under is avoided at this
stage
• In Secondary Separation fine mist or fine particles are removed – Secondary separation is also
called steam scrubbing or drying.
• This results in pure, or “dry and saturated ” steam going to (Turbine in Nuclear Power Plants)
and to superheater in other plants, where superheating is required
• Mechanical separation is accomplished by the baffles, screens, bent or corrugated plates, and
centrifugal separators.
• Baffle plates act as primary separators. They change or reverse the steam-flow
direction Figure (b) thus assisting gravity separation, and act as impact plates that
cause the water to drain off.
• Screens made of wire mesh act as secondary separators where the individual wires attract and
intercept the fine droplets, like in fabric
• The accumulating drops then fall by gravity back to the main body of water.
• Bent or corrugated plates are used for both primary and secondary separation. Their effectiveness
derives from their large ratio of surface to projected areas
• The above plates and screens are used in many other configurations to maximize gravity
separation
• At high pressures, where the density differential between water and steam diminishes,
centrifugal forces, much greater than the gravity forces, are used.
• Centrifugal separation devices are also called cyclone or turbo separators.
• They provide separation at pressures nearing critical.
• In a typical centrifugal separator (Fig. 3-9c), the mixture coming in from the risers is
deflected tangentially downward into the main body of water.
• It then enters the separators, which are arranged along the length of the main
steam drum. Guide vanes within the separators impart a spinning motion to the mixture,
which causes the heavier water droplets to move radially through the lighter steam,
to impinge on the separator wall, and to discharge downward below the water surface
through an outer concentric cylinder.
• The separator may be equipped with a corrugated plate at its exit to provide further
separation.
• Finally, screens, just under the drum exit, provide the final drying action.
Superheaters and Reheaters
• Superheaters and reheaters in utility steam generators are made of tubes of 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3
inch) Outer Dia
• Smaller diameters tubes have lower pressure stresses and withstand them better. However, head
loss for steam flow increases
• The larger diameters have lower steam-flow pressure drops and are easier to align.
• Finning on the outside surface of the tubes is avoided because it increases thermal stresses and
makes cleaning difficult
• Because the tubes are subjected to high temperatures, pressures, and thermal stresses, their
materials of construction must be carefully selected.
• Below 850°F ( 454°C ) carbon steel is adequate. Modem superheaters and reheaters
operatin), however, are usually made of special high-strength alloy steels chosen for both
strength and corrosion resistanceg at about 1000°F (537 °C)
• The exact alloy depends upon steam conditions and the types of fuel, especially if it contains
undesirable impurities.
• The allowable stresses for materials drop drastically as the temperature increases.
• Some of the boiler tube materials are as under
boilertubeMaterial.pdf, ASTM-A213-T22-ASME-SA213-T22-specification.pdf

ASTM_A213.PDF
Types of Superheaters
• Convection Superheater
• Radiant Superheater
• Combined Superheater
Convection Superheater
• Convective superheaters are located in the convective zone of the furnace, usually
ahead of the economizer
• Early superheater designs placed them above or behind banks of water tubes to protect
them from combustion flames and high temperatures.
• The main mode of heat transfer between the combustion gases and the superheater tubes,
was convection
• This type of superheater is known as the convection or convective superheaters.
Features
• The main distinguishing characteristic is its response to load changes. As demand for
steam increases, fuel- and airflow, and hence combustion-gas flow, are increased.
Contd…..
•• The
  convective heat-transfer coefficients increase both inside and outside the tubes,
increasing the overall heat-transfer coefficient between gas and steam faster than the
increase in mass-flow rate of the steam alone.
• Thus the steam receives greater heat transfer per unit mass-flow rate
Energy Balance
• The energy balance of the convective superheater (Fig, 6.28) gives

Where
• l and n are length and number of coils.
• Since, it is a gas to gas heat exchanger, with low hi (steam) and ho (gas), the overall heat
transfer coefficient Uo is also low. Now,
Radiant Superheater
• Because of the need for greater heat absorption, superheaters were eventually placed nearer
higher-temperature, in view of the combustion flames. – Thus they are placed directly in
combustion chamber, whereas Convection Superheaters are placed in the path of hot gases before
economizer
• Steam-flow velocities were increased to increase the overall heat-transfer coefficients, and overall
superheater designs are improved to overcome expected higher metal temperatures.
• This placement of superheater results in the main heat transfer between the hot gases and flame,
and the tube outer walls, to be accomplished by radiation.
• This design is referred to as “Radiant Superheater”
• As demand for steam increases with increase in load, fuel and air flow and hence, combustion gas
flow are increased.
• The convective heal transfer coefficients (h1 and h0) increase both inside and outside the tubes,
increasing the overall heat transfer coefficient Uo between gas and steam faster than the increase in
mass flow rate of steam alone.
•• The
  combustion temperatures do not materially change with load. Thus, the steam
receives greater heat transfer per unit mass flow rate, and its temperature increases with
load (Fig. 6.29).
• Convection superheaters alone are used with low-temperature steam generators.
• Radiant and convection superheaters and reheaters are used for high-temperature service
• The radiant units are arranged in flat panels or platen sections with wide spacings of
several feet to permit radiation through.
• These are usually followed downstream by sections on a narrower spacing that permit
both radiation and convection
• The radiant superheater located in the radiant zone of the furnace permits greater heat
absorption (Fig 6,27) by the radiative mode of heat transfer.

σ = Stephan Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10–8 W/m2K4

AT = total surface area of superheater exposed to the flame, m2
•   Ffw = view factor with respect to flame and wall,
Tf = flame absolute temperature, K
Tw = wall absolute temperature, K.
tw = tsat + 50 to 75°C
• Since therefore,
• Tf is the temperature of fuel, so, it is not strongly dependent on load,
• As the steam flow increases with load, the heat transfer per unit mass flow decreases.
• Thus, an increase in steam flow due to an increased load demand would result in a
reduction in exit steam temperature, the opposite effect of a convection superheater (Fig,
6.29)
• The combination of convective and radiative superheaters in series gives a relatively flat
curve for steam outlet temperature and is thus insensitive to load change
Fig. 6.29 Steam-outlet temperature
response of convective, radiant, and
combined (in series) superheater
Pendant type superheaters (PSH)
• Pendant type superheaters (PSH) are hung or suspended from above (Fig. 6.30).
• In a PSH, about 3/4th of the heating surface is made counter flow, while the remaining
l/4th acts in parallel flow (Fig, 6.30)
• The temperature remains constant during load variation as can be seen in the figure
Fig. 6.30 Pendant (mixed/low) superheater
Convective Superheater

Radiant Superheater
Reheaters
• Design considerations for reheaters are similar to those for superheaters except
that, although the steam outlet temperatures are about the same, the overall temperatures
are lower and the steam pressures are about 20 to 25 percent of those in the superheaters.
• The pressure stresses are therefore lower and a lower grade steel alloy is tolerated.
• In addition, larger tubing with higher stresses may be used, which has the additional
beneficial effect of reducing the pressure losses in the reheater
Figure: Superheater
(SH), reheater (RH),
economizer, and air
preheater arrangements
in a drum-type
steam generator with
cyclone furnace.
(Courtesy Babcock and
Wilcox.)
Economisers
• The economizer (EC) is the heat exchanger that raises the temperature of the water leaving the
highest-pressure feedwater heater to the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler
pressure.
• This is done by gases leaving the last superheater or reheater.
• These gases, at high enough temperatures to transfer heat to the superheater-reheaters, enter the
economizer at 370 to 540 °C (700 to 1000°F).
• Modern steam generators receive heated feedwater and their economizers operate above the dew
point of the gases, thus eliminating external corrosion and fouling.
• Also, much of the feedwater oxygen is removed in the deaerating feedwater heater at or above
100°C (212°F) which reduces internal corrosion.
• This is also aided by maintaining the water in the economizer at a pH of 8 to 9.
• These advances permitted the use of steel, which in turn is suitable for the high pressures
encountered in modern economizers
• Some plants allow, boiling in the outlet section, upto 20% at full power. This reduces at part load
• Economizer tubes are commonly 45 to 70 mm (1.75 to 2.75 inch) OD and are made in vertical
sections of continuous tubes, between inlet to outlet headers, with each section formed into
several horizontal paths connected by 180° vertical bends for proper draining.
• Sections are placed side by side on 45-50 mm (1.75- to 2-in) minimum spacing (edge to edge).
• The exact spacing depends upon the type of fuel and ash characteristics, which are smaller in
the cleaner the fuel, such as natural gas.
• When high-ash fuels are used, the water-soluble ashes accumulating on the economizer are
dissolved and washed off during plant shutdown.
• In that case the economizer is usually located above a hopper, which receives the dissolved
deposits
• Steam or air-jet cleaning is also used in addition to washing.
• Economizers have been built with plain or extended surface tubes.
• Extended surface tubes with fins or studs on their outer surface have higher heat-transfer
characteristics and thus require smaller space.
 Studs

Fins
• On balance, they have lower capital cost
• They are, however, more suited to clean-burning gaseous fuels and situations in which
no air preheaters are used, such as in combined steam-gas-turbine cycles
• Economizers are generally placed between the last superheater-reheater and the
air preheater.
• In some cases, a low-temperature economizer is placed after the air preheater. Such an
economizer is called a stack cooler and acts as a low-pressure feedwater heater except that
the heating medium is the flue gas instead of steam bled from the turbine.
6.7 Steam Generator Control
• The objective of steam generator control is to ensure the steam flow required by the
turbine at design pressure and temperature.
• The variables that are controlled are:
• fuel firing rate,
• air flow,
• gas flow distribution,
• feedwater flow and
• turbine valve-setting.
• The key measurements (available parameters) that describe the plant performance are:
• steam flow rate,
• steam pressure,
• steam temperature,
• primary and secondary air flow rates,
• fuel firing rate,
• feedwater flow rate
• steam drum level, and
• electrical power output.
• The control system must act on the measurement of these plant parameters so as to
maintain plant operation at the desired conditions.
• Most modern control instrumentation employs closed loop control.
• In this mode, the actual output of the system is measured and compared to some demand
signal (set point).
• The difference between the measurement and demand, called the error signal is then used
to reduce the difference between measurement and set point to zero.
• Proportional control is the simplest type of closed loop control
• In this mode, the controller output is proportional to the error signal.
• The control signal will be either directly or inversely proportional to the error signal,
depending on the control action required.
• Only a few basic control systems related to feedwater and drum level, steam pressure and
steam temperature are discussed
6.7.1 Feedwater and Drum Level Control
• Feedwater and, therefore, steam flow is controlled to meet load demand by the turbine and al the
same time maintain the level of water in the steam drum within relatively narrow limits.
• A three-element automatic control system, is used to maintain boiler level. The elements are:
• Boiler Level
• Feed flow
• Steam Flow
• The schematic diagram of the three elements, is shown in Fig. 6.34,
• The drum level sensor, senses the level and compares it with the set-point.
• It then, responds to the error between actual drum level and its set point, such as in the
case of high steam consumption and low feed water supply, and acts on the controller to
increase the feedwater valve opening to meet the steam flow demand.
• This action may be too slow and is supplemented by sensors for feedwater and steam
flow.
• The difference between the signals from these two sensors anticipates changes in drum
level and sends a signal to the controller to actuate the valve in the desired direction.
http://marineengineeringonline.com/marine-boiler-water-level-control/
6.7.2 Steam Pressure Control
• The steam pressure control system, sometimes called the “boiler master”, that maintains
steam pressure by adjusting
• fuel and
• combustion air flows to meet the desired pressure (Fig. 6.35).
• A steam pressure sensor, sends signal to fuel flow and air flow controls, such as the
pulverized coal power drives and forced draught fan, to affect the desired changes.
• A trimming signal from fuel flow and air flow sensors maintains the proper fuel-air ratio.
• Since it is often difficult to obtain accurate fuel flows, a steam flow sensor is sometimes
substituted for the fuel flow sensor – i.e. steam flow dictates the fuel flow
• Usually, about a 5-s delay is allowed when changing cool flow and air flow to ensure the
prevention of a momentary rich mixture with high fuel-air ratio and thus assure smoke-
free combustion.
..\Boilers\InstrumentationForBoilerPlant.pdf
Notes on Firing Control Systems
• In general, firing control is accomplished with a Plant Master that monitors the pressure of the
main steam header and modulates the firing rate (and hence, the steam production rate) of one
or more boilers delivering steam to the steam header.
• The firing demand signal is sent to all boilers in parallel, but each boiler is provided with a Boiler
Master to allow the Plant Master demand signal to be overridden or biased.
• When the signal is overridden, the steam production rate of the boiler is set manually by the
operator, and the boiler is said to be base-loaded.
• Most boilers on a given header must be allowed to be driven by the Plant Master to maintain
pressure control.
• Boilers that have the Boiler Master set in automatic mode (passing the steam demand from the
Plant Master to the boiler firing control system) are said to be swing boilers as opposed to base-
loaded boilers.
• The presence of heat recovery steam boilers on a steam header raises new control issues
because the steam production rate is primarily controlled by the horsepower demand placed on
the gas turbine providing the heat to the boiler.
• If the heat recovery boiler operates at a pressure above the header pressure, a separate
pressure control system can be used to blow off excess steam from the heat recovery
boiler when production is above the steam header demand.
• Note that for maximum efficiency, most heat recovery boilers are fitted with duct burners
to provide additional heat to the boiler.
• The duct burner is controlled with a Boiler Master like any other swing boiler.
• As long as there are other large swing boilers connected to the steam header, the other
fired boilers can reduce firing as required when output increases from the heat recovery
boiler.
6.7.3 Steam Generator Temperature Control
• A precise control of superheat temperature is important for efficient power plant
operation.
• Factors affecting the superheat temperatures are:
1. Furnace temperature,
2. Cleanliness of radiant and pendant superheaters, and convective superheater,
3. Temperature of gases entering the convective superheater,
4. Mass flow rate of gases through the convective superheater,
5. Feedwater temperature, and
6. Variation of plant load
• Importance of Temperature Control
• A reduction in steam temperature results in loss in plant efficiency, e g., a drop
of about 20 °C in steam temperature results in about 1% increase in heat rate.
• On the other hand, a rise in steam temperature above design value may result in
overheating and failure of superheater and reheater tubes and turbine blades.
• The temperature of the saturated steam leaving the drum corresponds to the boiler
pressure and remains constant if the steam-pressure controls are in working order.
• It is the superheater-reheater responses to Load changes which need to be corrected.
Combined Radiant-Convective Superheaters:
• Combined radiant-convective superheaters Radiant and convective superheaters are
arranged in series to yield a relatively flat final steam temperature over a wide load range
by taking advantage of their opposite steam temperature responses to load variation, as
explained earlier
Desuperheat and Attemperation
• Control by attemperation means that the steam temperature is reduced by removing
energy from the steam.
• In a tubular type, a portion of steam (ω1) taken out through tubes from a point between the
primary and secondary superheaters by an automatic valve diverted to a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger where boiled water from the drum may be circulated
Shell and Tube HX
• The steam gives up some of its energy to that water
and remixes with the primary steam (ω2) before
entering the secondary superheater
• A spray type attemperator, also called desuperheater
reduces the steam temperature by spraying low
temperature water from the boiler drum or
economizer exit into the line between the primary
and secondary superheaters or the radiaint and
pendant superheaters
• The spray nozzle injects water into the throat of a
mixing venturi, where the water mixes with high
velocity steam in the throat, vaporizes and cools the
steam.
• The venturi and a thermal sleeve (a high chrome
steel) protect the main steam pipe from thermal
shock caused by any unvaporized water droplets that
otherwise might impact on the pipe.
Gas bypass or damper control
• If at any time the flow of gases through a convective
superheater is reduced without changing the steam
flow, then the final steam temperature will be reduced.
• Gas by-passing of the superheater or damper control
utilizes this principle
• If it is desired to have constant steam temperature for
3/4th steam flow and higher, then the superheater is
designed to give the proper steam temperature at 3/4th
steam flow
• At greater steam flows, some of the flue gases are by
passed around the superheater to maintain the desired
steam temperature by partial closing of the dampers
under the superheater
Gas recirculation
• In this system, gas from some point downstream of
the superheater-reheaters, mostly from the
economiser outlet, but sometimes from the air
preheater outlet, is recirculated back to the furnace
by means of a gas recirculation fan (Fig. 6,4 1 ),
• The function of the recirculated gas is to reduce
furnace heat absorption by diluting the furnace gas
and lowering the furnace zone temperature (radiant
zone)
6.8 Air Preheater
• The temperature of feedwater in present day’s power plants with five or more feedwater
heaters goes up to 170-280 °C.
• It means that the temperature of flue gases leaving the economiser are from 270°C to
480°C (∆T = 100 °C)
• At high temperature of exit gases, the loss of energy with stack exhaust is high, and so
• The efficiency of the boiler will be low
• Heat pollution
• This heat can be utilized for heating air supplied for the combustion of fuel.
• The use of hot air makes
• the combustion process more efficient by making it more stable and
• lessening the energy losses due to incomplete combustion and unburnt carbon
• The application of hot air also leads to the increase of flame temperature and to the
intensification of radiant heat transfer in the furnace.
• As a result of the increased furnace exit temperature, gas temperatures throughout the
steam generator are raised.
• This also enhances convective heat transfer in downstream heat exchangers.
• The gas temperatures exiting the air preheater vary from 135°C to 180°C,
• There are two benefits of exhaust gases at this temperature
• Prevention of acid corrosion problems (to remain above dew point temperature)
• Proper dispersion of exhaust gases from the stack to the atmosphere. (Buoyancy
effect)
• Typical fuel savings are 4% for a 110°C rise in air temperature and above 11% for a
280°C rise in air temperature in the preheater.
6.9 Fluidized Bed Boilers

• Fluidized bed boilers produce steam from fossil and waste fuels by using a technique
called fluidized bed combustion which has been discussed.
• These can be of two types:
1. Bubbling fluidized bed (BFB)boilers
2, Circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boilers
• In BFB boilers, crushed coal (6-20 nun) is injected into the fluidized bed of limestone just
above an air-distribution grid at the bottom of the bed (Fig. 6.48)
Advantages of CFB Boilers
• Fuel Flexibility
• High Combustion Efficiency
• Efficient Sulphur Removal
• Low NOx Emission
• Simple Fuel Handling and Feed System
• Small Furnace Cross-section
• Good Turndown and Load Following Capability
Disadvantages
• Hydrodynamics Complexities
• Erosion in reactor walls
• Attrition of Particles
6.12 Ash Handling System
• Boilers burning pulverized coal (PC) have dry bottom furnaces.
• The large ash particles are collected under the furnace in a water- filled ash hopper.
• Fly ash is collected in dust collectors with either an electrostatic precipitator or a
baghouse.
• A PC boiler generates approximately 80% fly ash and 20% bottom ash.
• Ash must be collected and transported from various points of the plants as shown in Fig.
6.65.
• Pyrites, which are the rejects from the pulverizers, are disposed with the bottom ash
system.
• Three major factors should be considered for ash disposal systems
1. Plant site
2. Fuel source
3. Environnemental regulations
• Bottom ash and slag may be used as filling material for road construction.
• Fly ash can partly replace cement for making concrete.
• Bricks can be made with fly ash.
These are durable and strong.
Fig, 6.66 Sluice Conveyor Systems

(a) Bottom ash sluice conveyor, (b )Fly ash hydraulic vacuum conveyor
6.13 Feedwater Treatment
• Chemistry of Feedwater in the system is controlled, to avoid any corrosion, scaling, etc.
• Boiler make-up water to the extent of 1.5-2 per cent of the total flow rate which is
required to replenish water loss due to:
• boiler blowdown,
• escape with non-condensable gases in the deaerator,
• Turbine glands,
• replenish the losses of water through leakage from fittings
• and other causes.
• Sometimes during major repair, a part of water is drained, which is replaced with fresh
(treated) water.
• Raw water treatment is carried out considering the raw water chemistry (of the particular
area from where water is taken), but general requirements are now outlined
• Thus in each case make-up water needs to be treated prior
to feeding it to the boiler for
1. Prevention of hard scale formation on the heating
surfaces
2. Elimination of corrosion,
3. Control of carry-over to eliminate deposition on super
heater tubes, and
4. Prevention of silica deposition and corrosion damage rosion
E
to turbine blades. Droplet

Blade Pitting

Blade Erosion
• Raw water is, therefore, first pre-treated and then demineralized.
• Raw water contains a variety of impurities, such as
a) suspended solids and turbidity,
b) organics,
c) hardness (salts of calcium and magnesium),
d) alkalinity (bicarbonates, carbonates, hydrates),
e) other dissolved ions (sodium, sulphate, chloride, etc,)
f) Silica, and
g) dissolved gas (Oxygen, Carbon di oxide)
• The extent of pre-treatment depends on the source of raw water.
• Generally there are three types of treatment
1) External Treatment – Lime Soda Process, Hot Phosphate Softening, Sodium Zeolite
softening, Hydrogen Zeolite softening, etc.
2) Demineralizing plant – Three Ion exchange columns, anion, cation and mix-bed
3) Condensate Polishing – In addition to 1 and 2, it contains mix-bed only
• Morphine, Tri sodium phosphate and Hydrazine is also injected in feedwater
• Dearator
  removes these gases as explained in earlier chapter
Boiler Blowdown
• Boiler Blowdown is another way maintain water chemistry and employed in all power
plants, inspite of the use of chemical, at starting stage
• Also, the water is contaminated if there is any minor leak developed in the condenser. In
this way feedwater is contaminated.
• Addition of chemicals, result in accumulating the solids at the surface of drum
• These solids are removed by boiler blowdown, i.e. some of the water is removed in
controlled way.
• Blowdown is usually expressed in %age:
Schematic Diagram of Boiler
Blowdown System
Draught (Draft) System
• To supply to the furnace the required quantity of air for complete combustion of fuel.
• To remove the gaseous products of combustion from the furnace and throw these through
chimney or stack to the atmosphere

Types of Draught System

1. Natural Draught - Due to Density Difference
2. Mechanical (Forced) Draught System – With help of Fans
• To assist the fans in overcoming pressure losses.
• To help disperse the gas effluent into the atmosphere at a sufficient height
to cause minimum atmospheric pollution
•Natural
  Draught
• The natural draught is produced by a chimney or a stack.
• It is caused by the density difference between the atmospheric air
and the hot gas in the stack.
• For a chimney of height H metres the draught or pressure
difference (N/m2) produced is given by:

Where
= density of atmospheric air; kg/m
= average gas density in the chimney, kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
•• The
  density of air per at temperature Ta kg/m3
• The density of flue gas at temperature Tg ρg = kg/m3
Since:
Substituting values of density of air and flue gas, the equation becomes

• The pressure is in Pa or N/m2. If we are interested in mm of water column, the equation

becomes,

In this case h is in mmH2O and H is in meters

•• The
  above relationship is based on as, if there is no losses in the stack.
• However, the gases while passing through the stack face mainly wall friction, as well as
exit (leaving) loss
• So, the actual is given by:

• Where
f = Friction Factor
H = Stack Height (m)
D = Internal dia of stack (m)
V = Stack Exit Velocity (m/s)
Average gas density in the stack (kg/m3)
3-11 Fans
• Early and small-capacity steam generators relied upon natural draught for the combustion
gases.
• Proper design of gas passages must be provided to have the driving pressure
between the atmosphere and the gases within the generator, caused by the density
difference between atmospheric air and the average gas density, overcome the various
pressure losses within the generator and supply the required air for combustion.
• Analogy here may be made with natural circulation in the boiler
• Large steam generators require an assist to push the air in, pull the gas out, or both.
• For this, large fans are used. There are two types of fans in use today:
• Forced- Draught (FD) and
• Induced- Draught (ID) fans.
• When either one is used alone, it should overcome the total air and gas pressure losses
within the generator
• Forced draft fans are placed at air entrance to the air pre-heater and put the entire system
up to the stack entrance under +ve gauge pressure
• Induced draft fans are located in the gas stream between the air pre-heater and stack,
before or after dust collector.
• In many applications, draught fans are used. The scheme has following advantages:
1. They have lower maintenance problems.
2. They consume much less power because the cold air has the lowest specific volume in
air-gas path.
• However, special care need to be taken for:
1. Leakage of noxious gases from the furnace walls would be to the outside, necessitating
a gas-tight furnace construction.
2. Special attention must be given to the design of inspection doors, soot blower boxes,
and fuel-igniter openings.
• The Induced Draught (ID) fans pull the combustion gases from the furnace, through the
heat-transfer surfaces in the superheaters, reheaters, economizer, and gas side air
preheater and into the stack. (Sometimes they are built into the stack base.)
• The stack, because of its height, adds a natural driving pressure of its own
• The furnace in this case is said to operate with balanced draught, meaning that the
pressure in it is approximately atmospheric. Actually, it is kept at a slightly negative
gage pressure to ensure that any leakage would be inward
• Fans used in electric-generating plants are among the largest made: capacities of
700 m3/s and 0.15 bar
• Because they operate continuously for long periods (i.e. 1.5 years), they must be rugged,
well balanced, and efficient over a wide range of outputs.
• There are two types of fans in common
• Axial flow (gases travel along the shaft)
• Radial flow (perpendicular to shaft in volute to increase pressure)
• In general, centrifugal fans with backward curved vanes for Forced Draft Fans and for ID
fans, fans with forward curved or straight curved vans are used
Figure 3-18: Centrifugal blading: (a) forward (b) flat, and (c) backward-curved.
Vector diagrams show blade tip velocity Vb, air velocity relative to blade, and V
absolute velocity of air leaving blade. V is the same in all cases
Head Capacity Curve for fan with backward curved vanes
Fan Control
• Damper Control
• Variable Speed Control
• Damper Control fans use simple ac motor (constant speed)
• Economical
• Head Loss increases when dampers are partially closed (see the H-Q) curve
• Variable speed control, as the name implies, varies the speed and thus the flow as
• Flow is proportional to N
• Pressure is proportional to N 2
• Power Input is proportional to N 3
• Devices used for power variation
• Hydraulic coupling
• Magnetic coupling
• Variable speed DC motors etc.
• High Capital Cost is major disadvantage of variable speed control
3-12 THE STACK
Dispersion
End
Old version